LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.' 



Chap. ___}___. Copyright jS^._ 



Shelf-_ 



3.63. 



UNITED STATES b>F AMERICA. 



The Peerless Hose Nipple Cap 




Side View. 
Cut shows exact size of Nipple Cap. 

IS PRACTICALLY ANTI-FRICTION. THE SOFT YIELDING END OF THE 
CAP IN CONTACT WITH THE LINING OR TUBE OF THE HOSE IS VERY 
ELASTIC AND YIELDING, OVERCOMING THE SWINGING AND MECHANICAL 
MOTION, DOUBLING THE LIFE OF 90 PER CENT. OF ANY AIR BRAKE 
HOSE WHEN THIS LITTLE HOSE NIPPLE CAP IS USED. 



PUT UP IN BOXES CONTAINING ONE GROSS EACH. 

PUT THE HOSE NIPPLE CAP ON THE END OF THE IRON NIPPLE OR 
COUPLING FIRMLY, THEN COAT THE END AND OUTSIDE OF THE NIPPLE 
CAP FREELY WITH PEERLESS RUBBER CEMENT, AND APPLY HOSE TO 
C U NG AND NIPPLE AS USUAL. 




MANUFACTURED, PATENTED, AND GOPYKIGHTED EXCLUSIVELY BY 



THE PEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 



16 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK. 



JUST PUBLISHED. 



A CATECHISM ON THE 

Combustion of Coal 



WILLIAM M. BARR, M. E., 

Author of "Pumping Machinery," "Boilers and Furnaces," etc. 

FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 



NEARLY 350 PAGES. 



Z>XlXO£2 $1.50. 



Locomotive engineers and firemen will find this booK especially 
adapted to their needs while preparing for examination for promotion. It 
is a complete guide to the practical solution of all questions relating to the 
combustion of anthracite or bituminous coals and the prevention of smoke. 

This is the only treatise published in America on this important 
subject. It should, therefore, have a place in the working library of every 
engineer, fireman and student in engineering. 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Pubi^ishbrs, 
J32 NASSAU ST., NEW YORK. 

^ Copies of this book prepaid to any address on receipt of 'price, or a special 
circular of contents mailed on application. 



UF'=XO=DAXE 



Air-Brake Catechism 



A COMPLETE STUDY OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT, 
INCLUDING THE LATEST DEVICES AND INVEN- 
TIONS USED. ALL TROUBLES AND PECU- 
LIARITIES OF THE AIR BRAKE, AND 
A PRACTICAL WAY TO FIND 
AND REMEDY THEM 
ARE EXPLAINED J 



Containing nearly 1 ,000 Questions witti their Answers/ intended 

as Examination Questions for Engineers and Firemen, 

and for all other Practical Railroad Men ) 

BY ^ 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL 

Air-Brake Instructor and Inspector with Westinghottse Air Brake Co. 

FULLY ILLUSTRATED 

By engravings specially made to illustrate the various parts of the 

Air Brake ; also containing three large folding plates 

/ -' - ' 

TWELFTH EDITION 

Revised, Enlarged and brought right up to date 



NEW YORK 

NORxMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 
1900 



_55321_ 

■'V.l: COPtU Htt£i/EO 

OCT 2 1900 

Cofy right tntry 

££r('f,^t> copy. 

U»--'Vfr«< to 

OnOiH DIVISION, 

OC T 18 iflflfl 




Copyrighted, 



NORMAN W. HE)NI,KY & CO. 
Copyrighted, 1900 

BY 
NORMAN W. HKNI^KY & CO. 










6^0' 




^ 



w 



DeMcatton* 



THIS BOOK IS RKSPECTFUI.I.Y DEDICATED TO 

R. C. BI^ACKAIvI,, 

SUPERINTENDENT OF MACHINERY, D. & H. CO. 

AS A TOKEN OE APPRECIATION 

OF HIS 

EXECUTIVE ABII.ITY AND INTEI,I<IGENT SERVICE 

DURING A I.ONG PERIOD OF 

PRACTICAI, RAII^ROADING. 



PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION. 

The success of previous editions of this book has led 
the author to add several new chapters to the present 
edition, and at the same time the work has been revised 
and corrected to date. 

I desire to now express thanks for the many favorable 
letters received from students of the Air Brake. 

ROBERT H. BLACKALL. 

September, 1900. 



PREFACE. 

Therk is a law compelling railroad companies to have 
a sufficient number of cars to control trains equipped with 
air brakes by January i, 1900. In view of this, there is a 
vast army of railroad employees, especially engine and train 
crews and air-brake machinists, whose work demands a 
practical and thorough understanding of that subject. 

There is no book published which gives a complete study 
of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices and 
inventions used. It is to meet the demand for such a book 
that the present work is designed. 

The book includes a complete discussion of all parts 
of the air-brake equipment, the troubles and peculiarities 
encountered, and a practical way to find and remedy them. 
It is written in the familiar style of the class-room, the 
method of question and answer being adopted, as in that 
way each point to be enforced may be more definitely and 
clearly brought out. 

Train and engine crews will find special and practical as- 
sistance to their work under the subjects Train Hand- 
ling and Train Inspection. 

The aim of the author has been to make the subject 
matter of such a character as will be readily understood by 
beginners, and by progression under each topic, to cover 
also the more intricate work, which will make the book valu- 
able to those advanced in the subject. 

ROBERT H. BI.ACKAI,L, 
Air-Brake Inspector, D. & H. C, Co. 

October, 1898. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Preface. 


PAGE. 


Beginnings of tlie Air Brake 


17-19 


Westinghouse Automatic Brake • . 


21 


Triple Valve ..... 


22-50 


Plain Triple .... 


22-26 


Functions of the Triple . 


27-34 


Quick- Action Triple . 


35-40 


Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple . 


41-50 


Westinghouse Freight Equipment . 


51-54 


Piston Travel ..... 


55-65 


Westinghouse Retaining Valve — 




Operation, Troubles and Benefits 


. 66-73 


Main Reservoir .... 


74-78 


Westinghouse Engineer's Brake Valves 


• 79-119 


F 6 Valve ..... 


81-105 


Feed Valve or Train -Line Governor 


93-97 


Little Drum, or cavity D 


98-101 


Peculiarities and Troubles 


. 102-105 


D 8 Valve ..... 


106-117 


Operation and Description 


. 106-113 


Peculiarities and Troubles 


114-117 


Comparison of F 6 and D 8 Brake Valve 


. 118-119 


Westinghouse Pumps 


120-135 


9>^-Inch Pump ..... 


. 121-132 


Operation .... 


121-125 


Peculiarities, Troubles and Care . 


• 125-132 


8-Inch Pump ..... 


132-135 


Operation ..... 


. 132-135 


Troubles . . » , 


135 


Sweeney Compressor . o . , 


136 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Westinghouse Pump Governors — 

Operations, Peculiarities and Troubles . . 137-143 

Westinghouse Whistle Signal . . . 144-157 

Operation ...... 1 44-1 51 

Peculiarities and Troubles . . . 152-157 

Westinghouse High-Speed Brake . . . 158-162 

Train Inspection ..... 163-170 

Train Handling ...... 1 71-194 

Description of Tests . . . . . 195 

Piping ....... 196-197 

M. C. B. Rules ..... 198-201 

Braking Power and Leverage .... 202-220 

Discussion . . , . . 202-220 

Classes of Levers ..... 205-209 

Application to Hodge System . . 209-214 

Application to Stevens System . . . 213-214 

Sizes of Cylinders to be used with Different 

Weights of Cars . . . . 215 

American Brake Leverage . . . 216-218 

Cam Brake . . . . . 219 

Formulae and Rules for Air-Brake Inspectors . 220-223 

Increased Brake Efficiency for Heavy Freight Trains . 224-226 

Air Brake Recording Gages . . . 227-231 

Sansom Bell Ringer . . . . . 232-236 

Ochse Bell Ringer ..... 237-240 

Sanders . . . . . . . 241-248 

Index . . . . o . . 249-254 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Plate A. General Arrangement of the Air-Brake Equipment on 
the Engine, Tender and Passenger Car. 



Fig! 


I. 


Fig. 


2. 


Fig. 


3. 


Fig. 


3 


Fig. 


4- 


Fig. 


5- 


Fig. 


6. 


Fig. 


7- 


Fig. 


8. 


Fig. 


9- 


Fig. 


lO. 


Fig. 


II. 


Fig. 


12. 


Fig. 


13- 


Fig. 


14. 


Fig. 


15- 


Fig. 


16. 


Fig. 


17- 


Fig. 


18. 


Fig. 


19- 


Fig. 


20. 


Plate B. 


Fig. 


21. 


Fig. 


22. 


Fig. 


23 



Plain Triple 

Quick-Action Triple .... 

Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve Bushing 
A. Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve . 

Quick-Action Triple, showing Emergency- 
Position ....... 

Plain Triple, showing Service Position . 

Quick-Action Triple, showing Release Posi 
tion 

Freight Equipment . 

McKee Slack Adjuster . 

Pressure Retaining Valve 

F 6 Brake Valve 

F 6 Brake Valve 

F 6 Brake Valve 

A View of the Bottom Side of the Rotary 43 

Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor 

Leak in Train-Line Governor Gasket 

Little Drum, or Cavity D . . . 

D 8 Brake Valve 

D 8 Brake Valve ..... 

D 8 Brake Valve 

Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Valve 

The 9 X -Inch Improved Air Pump. 

The 8- Inch Pump 

Improved Pump Governor .... 

Old Style Pump Governor .... 



22 
38 
39 
39 

41 
42 

43 
52 
64 
67 
82 
84 
86 
90 
94 
95 
98 
106 
no 
III 
112 

133 
138 

141 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fig. 


24. 


Fig. 


25. 


Fig. 


26. 


Fig. 


27. 


Fig. 


28. 


Fig. 


29. 


Fig. 


30 


Fig. 


31 


Fig. 


32 


Fig. 


33- 


Fig. 


34. 


Fig. 


35- 


Fig. 


36. 


Fig. 


37- 


Fig. 38. 


Fig. 


39- 


Fig. 


40. 


Plate C. 


Fig. 


41. 


Fig. 


42. 


Fig. 


43- 


Fig. 


44. 


Fig. 


45- 


Fig. 46. 


Fig. 


47. 


Fig. 


48. 


Fig. 


49. 


Fig. 


50- 


Fig. 


51- 


Fig. 


52. 



Location of Signal Apparatus on Engine 

Location of Signal Apparatus on Coach . 

Car Discharge Valve 

Signal Valve . 

Improved Reducing Valve 

Signal Whistle 

Old Style Reducing Valve 

High-Speed Brake Reducing Valve 

Comparative Efficiency of Different Westing- 
house Brakes 

Lever of ist Kind 

Lever of ist Kind 

Lever of 2nd Kind 

Lever of 2nd Kind 

Lever of 3rd Kind 

Lever of 3rd Kind 

Hodge System . 

American Equalized Brake 

Showing Increased Brake Efficiency for heavy 
Freight Trains. 

Revolving Recording Gage 

Horizontal Recording Gage 

Sansom Bell Ringer 

Sansom Bell Ringer as. applied to a Bell 
Frame ...... 

Shows the Application of Bell Ringer 

Ochse Bell Ringer .... 

Ochse Bell Ringer .... 

Leach " D " Double Sander 

Detail of Leach "D " Double Trap, showing 
exterior air nozzle. 

Leach " A " Style Sander 

Leach " B " Sander . 

* ' She ' ' Sander 



Plate A. 

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT ON THE ENGINE, 
TENDER AND PASSENGER CAR. 




V 

F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 

F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 
F 

p: 

F 
F 
F 
F 



Fi 

Fi 
Fi 



BEGINNINGS OF THE 

AIR BRAKE 



Q. What is ait air brake f 

A. A brake worked by compressed air. 

Q. What was the first form of air brake used ? 

A. The straight air brake. 

Q. By whom and when was it invented f 

A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1869, 

Q. What forms of brake did it supplant f 

A. The hand and the spring brakes. 

Q. What parts were necessary to operate the 
straight air brake ? 

A. An air pump, main reservoir, a valve called the 
three-way cock used to control the application and release 
of the brakes, a train pipe, and brake cylinders. 

Q. What parts were on the engine ? 

A. A main reservoir, pump, and engineer's valve. 

Q. What parts were on the car ? 

A. The train pipe and cylinder. 

Q. Where was the braking power stored with this 
system ? 

A. In the main reservoir on the engine. 



1 8 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. How were the brakes applied ? 

A. By changing tlie position of the three- way cock 
on the engine so as to allow the main reservoir pressure 
to flow into the train line. The train line, connected 
directly with the brake cylinder, allowed air to pass into 
the cylinder, forcing the piston out and applying the brake. 

Q. Why was this brake tinsatisfactoiy ? 

A. For several reasons. First, the tendency of the 
brake was to apply soonest at the head end of the train. 
If they were applied suddenly the slack running ahead 
would cause severe shocks and damage. Second, if a 
hose burst in the train, the brakes could not be set with 
air, as it would pass out the burst hose to the atmosphere. 
Third, on a long train the main reservoir pressure would 
equalize with that in the train line and brake cylinders 
at a low pressure on account of the large space to be filled ; 
before the brakes were full set the engineer would have 
to allow the pump to compress air into the train line and 
brake cylinders, and before maximum braking power 
was obtained the train would be stopped. Fourth, the 
effect of friction on the flow of air from main reservoir 
through a long train made this brake slower. 

Q. What was ihe next form after the straight 
air brake ? 

A. The automatic. 

Q. By whom and when was it invented ? 
A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1873. 

Q. What gains over the hand brake are made 
with the air brake ? 

A. With a train of fifty modern equipped air-brake 
cars, a full and harder set brake is obtained on the entire 
train more quickly than a hand brake can be set on one 
car. Since trains handled on heavy grades have to be 



Beginnings of the Air Brake. 



19 



slowed Sown for the purpose of recharging, by this means 
the wheels are given a chance to cool. With the hand 
brakes used on heavy grades, the shoes grind against the 
wheels down nearly, or quite all of the grade so that often 
the train is wrecked because the wheels are heated to so 
high a temperature that they break. Air brakes give 
us an increased speed of trains with greater safety. 



THE WESTINGHOUSB AUTOMATIC BRAKE. 

Q. Where was the difference in the equipment 
between the straight air and atttomatic brake made ? 

A. Besides the train line and brake cylinder, a plain 
triple and an auxiliary reservoir were added to the car. 

Q. With the cars equipped with the automatic 
brake, what gain was m^ade over the straight air 
brake ? 

A. (i) The necessary braking power, regardless of 
the length of the train, was stored in the auxiliary under 
each car for that car, so that the brakes could be full set 
very quickly compared to the action of the straight air 
brake. (2) If the train broke in two or a hose burst, 
the triples would automatically apply the brakes, while 
with the straight air the brakes could not be applied. 

Q. What was the essential feature of the auto- 
w.atic brake ? 

A. The triple valve known as the 'plain triple, 

Q, Where was it located f 

A. On the car, at the junction of the train line, 
auxiliary, and brake cylinder. 

Q. Did the pump and three-way cock remaifi 07i 
the engine ? 

A. Yes ; this was left for later development. 



PIvAIN TRIPLE. 

Q, Name the different parts of the plain triple. 




Fig. I.— P1.AIN Tripi^e. 



A. 13 and 15 are the cut-out cock and the handle ; 8^ 
the graduating post; 9, the graduating spring; m and. 



Plain Triple. 23 

n are feed ports; 5 is the triple piston; 6, the slide 
valve; 7 is the graduating valve which works inside 
the slide valve; 12, a piston-packing ring; 18, slide- 
valve spring ; Y, the port leading to the auxiliary ; X 
leads to brake cylinder ; W leads to train-line pressure. 

Q. For what are valve ij and handle i ^ ttsed? 

A. They permit the triple to be used as straight 
air, automatic or cut out entirely, as illustrated by the 
cut (Fig. i). 

O. What three positions has the handle i§ 
{Fig. I)? 

A. As shown in the cut, by the different positions of 
the handle : so that the triple would be cut in, as it is 
with the handle 15 at right angles to the triple ; pointing 
straight down, in which case, air coming in at W from 
the train line would go through port e of the plug cock 
13 and out into the brake cylinder through X ; or the 
handle could stand at an angle of 45°, in which posi- 
tion ports /, a and d would all be blanked. 

In the first position the triple is cut in as automatic, 
in the second for straight air, and in the third the triple 
is cut out entirely. 

Q, Can the modern plain triple now sent out be 
cut into straight air ? 

A. No. 

Q. Why not ? 

K. Because there are lugs cast on the handle 15 
which strike and will not allow it to be raised above 
its position as shown in the cut, or lower than the 
position marked '' shut off." 

. Q. Why was it necessary to have it so arra^iged 
that it co2ild be cut in as straight air f 

A. When the brakes were gradually being changed 



24 Air-Brake Catechism. 

from straight air to automatic, it sometimes happened 
that only a few cars in the train had the triple applied. 
In this case the handle 15 was turned so as to cut the car 
into straight air to be used with the other straight air cars. 

Q. Of what use are 8 and g {Fig- i^ ? 

A. In applying the brakes, when piston 5 moves 
out and touches the stem 8, held by the graduating spring 
9 (Fig. i), the piston is stopped, if a gradual reduction is 
being made on the train line, when the piston has 
drawn the slide valve down far enough to make a port 
connection between the auxiliary and cylinder. 

Q. If a quick reduction is being made on the 
train liiie, will the spring g stop the triple piston ? 

A. No; a quick reduction causes the triple piston 5 
to move out quickly, and the sudden impact compresses 
the spring 9, allowing the piston 5 to move out until it 
strikes gasket 11, to what is known as emergency 
position. 

Q. 5 {Fig. I) is called the triple piston. How is it 
actuated? 

A. Train-line pressure is on the lower side of the 
piston and auxiliary pressure on the upper or slide- 
valve side. It is by changing these pressures that the 
piston is moved. 

Q. What are the duties of the piston as it moves f 
A. To open and close the feed ports m and n (Fig. i ) 
through which the train -line pressure flows into the auxil- 
iary, to move the graduating valve 7 and the slide valve 6. 

Q. What is the duty of the graduating valve 7 
{Ftg. /) ? 

A. It is the small valve inside the slide valve, and its 
duty as it is moved backward and forward by the triple 
piston is to open and close the port p through which, in 



Plain Tripi^k. 25 

the service application, auxiliary pressure flows to the 
brake cylinder. 

Q. Does the graduatmg valve Tuove every time 
the triple piston moves? 

A. Yes, because it is fastened to the stem of the 
piston by a pin which passes through both the gradu- 
ating valve and the stem of the triple piston. The pin 
is represented by the dotted lines running through the 
lower end of the graduating valve at right angles to it. 

Q. Could we get along without the graduatiiig 
valve ? 

A. Yes, but the sensitiveness of the triple would be 
destroyed. 

Q. How does the graduating valve make the 
' triple se7isitive ? 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure causes the 
triple to assume service position, and after the auxiliary 
pressure has expanded to a trifle below that in the train 
line, piston 5 (Fig. i) moves back and closes the graduating 
valve on its seat. Train-line pressure had simply to 
overcome the friction on the triple piston-packing ring 
to do this, but had we no graduating valve the train- 
line pressure would have had to be strong enough to 
overcome the additional friction of the slide valve to 
move it back far enough to close port p. When wishing 
to apply brakes harder, a heavier reduction would be 
necessary to again move the slide valve to service 
position. With the graduating valve, the slide valve is 
moved to service position with the first reduction, where 
it remains until the brake is released or in case the 
emergency is used. 

Q. What are the duties of the slide valve ? 

A. In the plain triple, when moved by the triple 
piston, it serves to make a connection between the 



26 Air-Brake Catechism. 

auxiliary and the brake cylinder or between the brake 
cylinder and the atmosphere. 

Q. Does the slide valve ^inove every Hfne the 
piston moves? 

A. No ; the slide valve will not move when the 
piston starts down until it has moved far enough for the 
lug just above i8 (Fig. i) to strike the valve. The 
same, if the piston is down full stroke ; when it starts 
back the slide valve will not move until the piston has 
gone back far enough to seat the graduating valve. 

Q. Of what use is the spring 1 8 {Fig. /) f 
A. Its duty is to hold the slide valve on its seat and 
to prevent dirt from collecting there when there is no 
auxiliary pressure to hold the valve on its seat, as when 
the car is "dry.'* 



FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIPIvE IN THE 
OPERATION OF THE BRAKE. 

2. Why is this valve called the triple valve ? 
A. Because it automatically does three things : 
charges the auxiliary, applies the brake and releases it. 

Q. If an engine couples to a car that is not 
charged, how does the triple charge the auxiliary on 
the car when the hose is coupled and the angle 
cocks turned so as to allow the compressed air to 
flow into the train line on this car from the engine? 

A. A cross-over pipe from the main train line couples 
to the triple at IT (Fig. i). The pressure from the train 
line passes into the triple at W, through port c as indicated 
by the arrow into cavity B; thence through the feed 
ports m and n into the chamber where the slide valve 
moves and out into the auxiliary at Y. 

Q. How long does the air continue to flow into 
the auxiliary ? 

A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the auxiliary, that is, until the pressures 
are equal on the two sides of the triple piston 5. 

Q. How are the two sides of the piston referred 
to? 

A. The lower side, having train-line pressure on it, 
is called the train-line side of the piston, and the upper 
side, having auxiliary pressure on it, the auxiliary or 
slide-valve side. 



28 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What is 7iecessary to cause piston 5 {Fig, /) 
to move fi^om release position f 

A. Any reduction of train-line pressure ; a break in 
tlie hose ; the use of his valve by the engineer to make 
a train-line reduction. 

Q. If a reduction of train-line pressure is made, 
how does the triple respond? 

A. Auxiliary pressure now being greater forces the 
triple piston down. 

Q. What two things does the piston do when it 
starts to move down ? 

A. It closes the feed grooves m and n and moves the 
graduating valve from its seat. 

Q. Does the slide valve move as soon as the 
piston ? 

A. No, not until the lug above 18 (Fig. i) is drawn 
down far enough to rest against the slide valve. 

Q. What does the slide valve do as soon as the 
lug strikes and moves it down f 

A. It first closes the exhaust port g which in release 
position connected the brake cylinder with the atmos- 
phere through X, d, e, /, ^, /i and ^. 

Q. How far down does the triple piston travel ? 

A. Until the projecting stem of the piston strikes 
the stem 8 held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. i). 

Q, When these stems touch, how does the slide 
valve stand ? 

A. Port p of the slide valve is in front of port /, 
and, as the graduating valve was pulled from its seat 
when the piston first moved, the auxiliary pressure is 
now free to pass into the slide valve through port ^, 



Functions of the Triple. 29 

called the service or graduating port, which leads into 
port p. The air passes through ports l^ p^ f^ e^ d, and 
out through X to the brake cylinder. 

Q. How long does the gradttating valve remain 
off its seat so as to allow auxiliary pressure to flow 
to the brake cylinder ? 

A. We reduced the train-line pressure to allow the 
greater auxiliary pressure to move the piston down and 
open the service or graduating port p between the auxil- 
iary and cylinder. Just as long as the auxiliary pressure 
is greater, the piston will stay down and the graduating 
valve remain unseated. As the auxiliary pressure ex- 
pands into the brake cylinder it gradually becomes less 
until, when the train-line pressure becomes enough 
greater than that in the auxiliary to overcome the fric- 
tion on the packing ring 12 (Fig. i), the piston auto- 
matically moves back and seats the graduating valve. 

Q. Does the slide valve move ? 
A. No, not now. 

Q. Why not? 

A, The train-line pressure was just strong enough 
to overcome the friction on the packing ring 12, move 
the piston back, and close the graduating valve. With 
the ports all closed the piston would also have to com- 
press the air in the auxiliary to go back any farther. 
Then, too,, the pressure left in the auxiliary acting to 
force the slide valve on its seat produces a friction, if the 
valve were moved, that the train-line pressure as it stands 
is not sufficiently strong to overcome. 

Q. How do the aiixiliary and train-line press- 
ures now stand f 

A. Practically equal, although the auxiliary pressure 
had to be a trifle less to allow the triple piston to be 
moved back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 



30 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q, The brake is now partially applied and the 
triple is on what is termed lap position ; what must 
be done to apply the brake harder f 

A. Another reduction of train-line pressure must be 
made. 

Q. How does this set the brake tighter ? 

A. The auxiliary pressure once more being stronger 
than that on the train line forces the triple piston down 
until it is again stopped by the graduating post. This 
movement is just sufficient to unseat the graduating 
valve, the slide valve remaining where it was with its 
service port p (Fig. i) in front of the brake cylinder o 
About the same amount of air pressure passes from the 
auxiliary to the cylinder that was taken from the train 
line, and the piston once more having a trifle more 
pressure on the train line than on the auxiliary side moves 
back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 

Q, How long can these train-line reductions con- 
tinue to be made and cause the brake to set harder ? 

A. Until the pressures have finally equalized be- 
tween the auxiliary and the brake cylinder. 

Q. After the auxiliary and brake-cylinder press- 
tires were equal, would the brake set any harder if 
all train-line pressure were thrown to the atmos- 
phere ? 

A. No ; when the brakes are full set the auxiliar}^ 
and brake-cylinder pressures are equal, and a further re- 
duction of train-line pressure would only be a waste of 
air that the pump would have to replace in order to re- 
lease the brakes. 

Q. If a further train-line reduction were made 
after the brake was full set, would piston 5 {Fig. i) 



Functions of the Triple. 31 

move any fa^^ther than until the piston and 
graduatins[ post touched ? 

A. Yes ; the spring 9 could not withstand the auxil- 
iary pressure, as it is so much in excess of the reduced 
train-line pressure, and the piston would move down 
until it seated on gasket 11. In this position there 
would be a direct connection across the end of the slide 
valve between the auxiliary and brake cylinder, but the 
brake would not set any tighter, as the auxiliary and 
brake- cylinder pressures were already equal. 

Q. The brake is noiv ficll set. What is neces- 
sa ry to release it ? 

A. It is necessary to get the pressure on the train- 
line side of the triple piston greater than that on its 
auxiliary side. 

Q How is this done ? 

A. By moving the handle of the engineer's valve so 
as to connect the pressure of ninety pounds, stored in the 
large main reservoir on the engine, with the train line. 
Air flowing from the main reservoir into the train line 
causes the pressure on the train-line side of the triple 
piston to be sufficiently strong to overcome auxiliary 
pressure and force the triple piston to release position. 

Q. When the triple is forced to release position 
the slide and graduating valves are carried with it. 
What two port openings are inade in this position ? 

A. One between the train line and auxiliary through 
the feed ports m and n (Fig. i) ; and one from the brake 
cylinder to the atmosphere through ports oJ, e, /, ^, h 
and Ic. The triple is in release as shown in the cut. 

Q. We nutice that the feed grooves m and n {Fig. 
/) are very small. How long wottld it take to charge 
an a2ixiliaiy fro7n ze7'o to seventy pounds with a 



32 



Air- Brake Catechism. 



constant pressure of seventy pounds on the t'^ain 
liney using the triple now sent out ? 

A. About seventy seconds ; and occasionally a little 
longer. 

Q. Will it charge more quickly than this with 
a greater pressure than seventy pounds on the train 
line f 

A. Yes. 

Q. Had we a train of fifteen cars, could we 
charge the fifteen auxiliaries as fast as we could 
one? 

A. No, because we now have fifteen feed grooves 
in the triples drawing air from the train line, and 
the pump cannot compress air fast enough to keep 
the train-line pressure at seventy pounds. 

Q, Why not make these feed grooves larger so 
as to charge the auxiliaries tnore quickly f 

A. The purpose is to make the grooves sufficiently 
small that on a long train the auxiliaries will charge 
alike. On a long train there is a tendency for the head 
auxiliaries to charge faster than the rear ones, if the 
triple feed grooves are larger than those now used. 

Q. What is likely to happen if some auxiliaries 
charge faster than others ? 

A. As the air is fed from the main reservoir back 
into the train line until those pressures are equal, and 
as the pump will not, on a long train, supply air as fast 
as the triple feed grooves take it from the train line, it 
follows that the auxiliaries which charge the slower will 
continue to feed from the train line and cause a reduction 
that will set some of the head brakes. 

Q, So far we have spoken of the action of the 
plain triple only in the service application. What 



Functions of the Triple. 33 

is the difference between the service and the emer- 
gency ? 

A. In service the brakes set gradually, while in 
emergency they go on very suddenly. 

Q. A gradual reduction sets the brakes in ser- 
vice. What ki7id of a redttction is necessary to set 
the brakes in emergency f 

A. A sudden reduction. 

Q, Describe the einergency action of the plain 
triple. 

A. The suddenness of the train-line reduction causes 
piston 5 (Fig. i) to move down suddenly, striking the 
stem 8 a quick, sharp blow which the graduating spring 
9 is not stiff enough to withstand. The piston travels 
down full stroke and bottoms on gasket 1 1 . This is emer- 
gency position, and the slide valve has been drawn down 
so that air coming through Y from the auxiliary passes 
across the end of the slide valve directly into the large 
port / leading to the brake cylinder without first going 
through the small service port ]) in the slide valve, as it 
did in the service position. 

Q. Why does the brake set m^ore qitickly ? 

A. Because the air goes direct to the cylinder through 
a larger port than is used in service. 

Q. Do we gain any more pressure with the plain 
. triple in emergency than in fill service f 

A. No ; in both cases the auxiliary pressure equal- 
izes with that in the brake cylinder, but in emergency 
these pressures equalize more quickly because of the air 
reaching the brake cylinder through a larger port. 

Q, Are plain triples still tLsed ? 



34 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Yes, but they are used almost entirely on engines 
and tenders. Their use on cars is confined principally 
to those equipments put on before the quick-action triple 
was introduced. 

Q, Is there a more modern plain triple than the one 
showji in Fig, i ? 

Yes, the one shown in Fig. 5. 

Q. Why was this designed? 

A. To use with the larger auxiliaries and brake 
cylinders that have come into use. 

Q. What are the main cha?iges f 

A. This later triple can only be cut in or cut out ; it 
has no ports that will permit of its being used with 
straight air ; its ports are larger, in order that it will 
chaise a large auxiliary in the same time that the ordi- 
nary plain triple will charge the smaller tender auxiliary ; 
this valve has no cut-out plug, but, instead, a cut-out 
cock is placed in the cross-over pipe between it and the 
train line. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE QUICK-ACTION 
TRIPLE. 

Q, When and by zvkom was the quick-action 
triple invented f 

A. In 1887, by George Westinghouse, Jr. 

Q. We already had the plain triple. Why was 
the qitick-action triple necessary f 

A. The plain triple was satisfactory so long as only 
the service application was used, but not so with the 
emergency application on a long train. In this latter 
case the head brakes were full set so much sooner than 
those on the rear, that the slack of the train ran ahead 
and often did great damage. 

Q. What two important advantages are gained 
hy the quick- action triple f 

A. We are enabled to set the brakes throughout the 
train before the slack has a chance to run ahead and do 
damage, and not only does the brake set more quickly in 
emergency, but it is also set harder, thus permitting a 
quicker stop and a higher safe speed for trains. 

Q. In the use of the service application, what is 
the difference between the action of the plain and 
the quick-action triples ? 

A. None whatever ; their action and the parts em- 
ployed are identical, excepting the additional ports placed 
in the slide valve of the quick-action triple, which are 
used only in emergency. 



36 Air-Brakk Catechism^ 

Q. Will these two kinds of triples scattered 
through a train work together properly in service ?' 
A. Perfectly » 

Q. Name the differ eiit parts of the quick-action 
triple not found in the plain triple. 

A, The strainer 16 (Fig. 2). The additional port s 
in the slide valve and the removed corner of the slide valve 
shown in Fig. 3 A. 8 is the emergency piston. 10 is the 
emergency or, as it is more commonly called, the rubber- 
seated valve. 15 is called the train-line check, also the 
emergency check. 

Q Of what use is the strainer ? 

A. Strainer 16 is to keep dirt from getting into the 
triple in such a way as to close the small feed ports i 
and k. 

Q. Of zvhat use is piston 8 ? 

A. If the triple is moved so as to allow auxiliary 
pressure to get into port t on top of piston 8 , this piston, 
will be forced down, thereby forcing the emergency valve 
10 from its seat. 

Q. What is done when the rubber-seated or 
emerge^icy valve 10 (f^ig. 2) is forced from its seat f 

A. All air escapes from cavity y and allows train- 
line pressure to force the train-line check 15 from its- 
seat. 

Q. Of what tcse is the check valve i§ ? 

A. If a hose breaks in the train line, the brakes would 
go full set on the whole train and, with no air in the 
train line, were it not for the check valve 15, brake- 
cylinder pressure coming in at C would force valve 10 
from its seat and pass direct to the train line througk 
cavity y and out of the broken or parted hose. In such 
a case the brakes would not stay set. 



The Westinghouse Quick- Action Triple. ^^ 

Q, Explam tJie action of the quick-actio7i triple 
in emergency. 

A. A quick train-line reduction causes the auxiliary 
pressure to force the triple piston out the full length of 
chamber h (Fig. 2), the graduating spring 22 being com- 
pressed on account of its inability to withstand the sudden 
IdIow from the triple piston. 

With the triple piston in the extreme position to the 
xight, or that of emergency, port s of the slide valve is 
in front of port r, thus establishing a connection be- 
tween the auxiliary and brake cylinder. At the same 
time the removed corner of the slide valve, shown in Fig. 
3 A, is in front of port i leading to the top of the emer- 
gency piston 8. The auxiliary pressure forcing piston 
-8 down unseats the emergency valve 10. This valve 
being unseated allows all pressure to escape from cavity 
ij. With no pressure in cavity y to hold the train-line 
check to its seat, the train-line pressure under the check 
raises it and passes into cavity ?/, over seat of valve 10 to 
cavity x and out at into the brake cylinder ; at the 
same time the auxiliary pressure is entering the cylinder 
through port r. As soon as the pressures equalize, piston 
S, valve 10, and check 15 go to their normal positions. 

Q. Of what use are Figs, j and jA ? 

A. Fig. 3 A gives a better idea of the location of the 
ports in the slide valve ; Fig. 3 , the location of the ports 
in the bushing inside of which the slide valve works. 

Q. Name the parts. 

A. 26 (Fig. 2) is the drain plug ; 16, the train-line 
strainer; 20, the graduating nut ; 21 , the graduating stem 
or post ; 22, the graduating spring ; 5, the triple piston ; 
J, the piston stem ; i and h^ the feed ports ; 6, the slide- 
valve spring; 3, the slide valve; 7, the graduating 
valve ; lu^ the service or graduating port ; n, the exhaust 



38 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



port; s, the emergency port; 2, a continuation of the 
service port w ; 15, the train-line or emergency check ; 
12, the train-line check spring; 10, the emergency or 




Fig. 2.— Quick- Action Tripi,e). 



rubber-seated valve; 8, the emergency piston. The 
exhaust port p leads around outside the brass bushing to 
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 3 by the dotted lines. 



The Westinghouse Quick-Action Tripi^e. 39 

Q, We have seen that with the quick-action 
triple the brakes are set harder in emergency , Are 
brakes set in emergency any harder to release f 

A. Witli quick-action triples, yes ; with plain triples, 
no. 




Fig. 3.— Quick- Action Tripi^e Swde Valve Bushing. 




Fig. 3a.— Quick- Action Tripi^e Swde) Vai,ve. 



Q, Why ? 

A. With the quick-action triples air from the train 
line helps set the brakes in emergency, and the press- 
ures equalize higher ; therefore the train-line pressure 
must be made higher to overcome the auxiliary pressure 
and force the triple piston to release position. 

With the plain triple the pressures equalize at the 
same pressure as in service. 

Q. After a partial service application has been 
made, can we get the quick action ? 

A. This depends on the amount of reduction that 
has been made in service and upon the piston travel. 
In no case can we gain as much after making even 
a small service reduction as we could if the sudden 



40 Air-Brake Catechism. 

reduction were made when the auxiliaries were fully 
charged and the brakes released. 

After a light reduction a gain over the pressure 
obtained in full service can be made by going to 
emergency position if the piston travel is a fair length, 
but not with short travel. 

By using the emergency after a partial service 
application, even we made no gain of pressure, we 
would get the full service more quickly. 

Q. How quick must a redicctio7i be made on 
the train line to throw a triple into quick actio7t ? 

A. Faster than the auxiliary pressure can get to the 
brake cylinder through the service port in the slide 
valve. In this case the graduating spring will not hold 
the triple piston from traveling full stroke. 

Q. When a triple is thrown into quick action, 
which pressure^ auxiliary or train line, reaches the 
bra ke cylin der first f 

A. Just a flash of auxiliary pressure reaches the 
cylinder as the service port in the slide valve passes the 
port leading to the cylinder, but the air from the train 
line reaches the cylinder first in any considerable 
volume, as the corner cut off from the slide valve allows 
the auxiliary pressure to strike piston 8 and force the 
rubber-seated valve lo from its seat before port s comes 
in front of port r. 

Q. Why is port s {Figs. 2 and jA), used in emer- 
gency, made smaller than port z, used in service, to let 
auxiliary pressure into the brake cylinder f 

A. So as to hold the auxiliary pressure back in 
emergency and allow as much air as possible to enter the 
brake cylinder from the train line. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF 
THE TRIPLE. 

From what follows it may seem that a triple will get 
out of order under any slightest provocation. This how- 
ever is not true ; it is a constant source of wonder to see 
the fine action of triple valves which have little or poor 




-TO AUXILIARY 



-TO CyLI.N.DER 



VO TRAIN LINE 



Fig. 4.— Quick- Action TripIvE, showing Emkrgkncy Position. 



care. A triple needs no more care than any other piece 
of mechanism to keep it doing first-class work. The 
aim of what follows is to bring out its possibilities. 



43 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q. What could wholly or partially stop the 
charging of an auxiliary f 

A. The strainer in the train line where the cross- 
over pipe leading to the triple joins the main train line, 
or the strainer i6 in the triple (Fig. 2) being filled with 
dirt, scale, cinders or oil. Port i or k might be plugged, 
the triple might be cut out, or there might be a leak in 
the auxiliary which let the air out as fast as it came in. 

Q. If all auxiliaries did not charge equally fast, 
what would be the effect ? 



TO AUXILIARY 




-^TO CYLINiDlER 



- TO TRAIN LINE 

Fig. 5.— P1.AIN TRIP1.K, SHOWING Skrvick Position. 

A. If we wished to apply the brakes very soon, the 
ones with the auxiliaries not fully charged would not re- 
spond to the first reduction. 

Q. Will any other trouble result from the 
strainers being corroded or dirty f 

A. Yes ; we might not be able to make a sufficiently 
quick reduction on the triple piston to get quick action. 

Q. One triple going into quick action makes a 
sudden train-line reductioji which starts the next 
triple, and that one the next, and so on throughout 



Peculiarities and Troubi.es oi^ the Tripi^e. 43 

the train. If five or six cars together in the train 
were cut out, or had plain triples^ or very dirty 
strainers, woiild the triples back of these go into 
quick action when the engineer made a sudden re- 
ductiofi f 

A. No, on account of the action of friction in the 
passage of the sudden reduction through the six car 
lengths of pipe. The friction gradually destroys the 




< .JO AUXILIARY 



»-T0. C.YLLNCEB 



TO TRAIN LIKE 



Fig. 6.— Quick- Action Tripi^e, showing Rei^Ease Position. 



suddenness of the reduction, and there is only a slight 
and gradual reduction on the train line back of the cars 
cut out. 

Q, What bad effect would follow if the engineer 

did not continue makincr a reduction ? 
<^ 

A. The air coming ahead from the back of the train 

would kick off the head brakes. 



44 Air- Brake Catechism. 

Q. Could these brakes in the back of the train 
be applied? 

A. Yes, in service but not in emergency. 

Q. Water sometimes collects in cavity ij {Fig. 2) 
of the triple. Where does it come from? 
A. It works back from the pump. 

Q. What bad effect will water have in this 
place ? 

A. It is likely to freeze in winter and block the flow 
of air through the triple. 

Q. What should be do7ie in such a case ? 

A. Apply burning waste and when thawed remove 
the drain plug 26 to remove the water or the trouble 
will recur. 

Q. What would be the effect of a weak or broken 
graduating spring ? 

A. We would have nothing to stop the triple piston 
when it reached service position, and it would move on 
to emergency position. 

Q. If one triple goes into quick action, will the 
rest go ? 

A. Yes, as a sudden reduction is made on the train 
line through the emergency ports of the triple in this 
case. This sudden reduction starts the next and that 
the next and so on. 

Q. Will a weak or broken graduating spring 
always throzv the triples into qiiick action ? 

A. No, only on a short train. 

Q. Why not on a long train ? 

A. On a short train, with a gradual train-line reduc» 
tion, air is drawn from the train line faster than the 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 45 

auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through 
the service port of the slide valve. When the auxiliary 
pressure is enough greater than that in the train line, it 
forces the triple piston to emergency position, as there is 
no graduating spring to stop it. 

On a long train, it takes longer to make a correspond- 
ing reduction on account of the larger volume of air in 
the train line. This gives the auxiliary pressure longer 
to pass into the cylinder, and as a result the train-line and 
auxiliary pressures keep about equal and the triple piston 
will not move to emergency position unless a sudden re- 
duction is made. 

Q. How fnany air cars must there be in a train 
so that a broken or weak graduating spring will not 
affect the service application ? 

A. Usually not less than six or seven; with more 
than this number, if otherwise the triples work properly, 
the graduating springs could be removed from all triples 
and no bad effect be noticed. 

Q. What two things will cause the triples to go 
into quick action regardless of the length of the 
train ? 

A. A sticky triple or a broken graduating pin. 
(The one which fastens the graduating valve to the 
piston stem as shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 2.) 

Q. Why will a sticky triple throw the brakes 
into eniergency ? 

A. Because the triple does not respond to a light re- 
duction. When it does move, it jumps, and the sudden 
blow compresses the graduating spring and the triple is 
in the quick-action position. This car starts the rest as 
before explained. 

Q, Why will a broken graduating pin throw the 
brakes into emergency ? 



46 Air-Brake Catkchism. 

A. Because with this pin broken there is nothing to 
move the graduating valve from its seat when the triple 
piston moves and the auxiliary pressure is acting to hold 
it on its seat. When a train-line reduction is made and 
the triple assumes service position, no air can leave the 
auxiliary and pass through the graduating or service 
port of the slide valve, as the graduating valve is on its 
seat. When sufficient train-line reduction has been 
made so that the graduating spring cannot withstand 
the auxiliary pressure acting on the piston, the triple 
goes to the quick-action position, and we get the quick 
action on this car and consequently on the rest as before 
explained. 

Q. Which of these three troubles — weak gradu- 
ating spring, broken graduating pin or sticky 
triple — will usually be found to exist if the brakes 
go into emergency with a service reduction f 

A. A sticky triple, and this usually means that the 
triple causing the trouble has had poor care. 

Q. Shall we get the same result regardless of the 
location of the faulty triple in the train f 
A. Yes ; if one starts, all do. 

Q. What is the probable trouble with a brake 
which, when set in service, will sometimes remain 
set and sometimes release ? 

A. A dirty slide valve which sometimes seats prop- 
erly and at others not ; in the latter case auxiliary press- 
ure escapes to the atmosphere through the exhaust port 
and allows train- line pressure to force this triple to re- 
lease position. , 

Q. How may this defect be remedied ? 

A. Remove the triple piston and attached parts, 
clean carefully, loosen the packing ring without remov- 
ing and rub a little oil on the slide valve with the finger. 



Peculiarities and Troubi.es of the Tripi^e. 47 

Q. Why not pour on the oil ? 
A. Too mucli oil is bad, as it collects dust, which 
with the oil forms gum . This causes a triple to stick. 

Q. What effect will a leak in the train line have 
if the brakes are not set ? 

A. It will simply cause the pump to work to sup- 
ply it. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are set f 
A. It will cause them to leak on harder. 

Q. Will the leak cause only the brake on that car 
to leak on, or all? 

A. All, as the train line is continuous through the 
train. 

Q. What effect will a leak in an auxiliary have 
if a brake is released? 

A. It will keep the pump at work the same as a 
train-line leak. 

Q. What effect if the brakes are applied? 

A. It will leak the brake off on the car where the 
leak is and then, drawing air from the train line through 
the feed ports, it will gradually set the other brakes 
tighter. 

Q. There are a number of leaks in the triple 
which will cause a blow at its exhaust port. Maine 
the two most likely to produce this effect. 

A. A leaky slide valve or a leaky rubber-seated 
valve (Fig. 2). 

Q. How can we tell which of these is causing the 
trouble ? 

A. As the exhaust port on the slide valve is always 
in communication with the atmosphere, whether the 



48 Air-Brake Catechism » 

brakes are applied or released, a leak on the face of the 
slide valve will cause a constant blow^ 

Q. How else can we tell if it is the slide valve 
that cazises the trouble f 

A. Apply the brake, and if auxiliary pressure is 
leaking away across the slide valve, the brake will 
generally release. 

Q. How can we tell if the troiible is with the 
rubber-seated valve f 

A. The rubber-seated valve will cause a blow at the 
exhaust only when the brake is released. 

Q. Whyf- 

A. The rubber-seated valve 10 (Fig. 2) leaking will 
allow the pressure to leave cavity y. The train-line 
pressure then raises check 15 and passes through cavity 
y across the rubber-seated valve, through cavity x, ports 
C and r, into the exhaust cavity n of the slide valve and 
out to the atmosphere through port p. When the brake 
is applied, port n in the slide valve is closed to port r> 
consequently the blow stops. 

Q. Where does the air which is leaking across 
the rtibber-seated valve go . after the brake is ap- 
plied? 

A. Direct to the brake cylinder through (7, and this 
brake continues to set harder, 

Q, Why is a leaky rubber-seated valve more 
likely to slide the zuheels on a car in a long train 
than in a short one f 

A. After the brakes are applied, this leak allows the 
train-line and brake- cylinder pressures to equalize. With 
a long train line there is a much greater volume of air^ 
and these pressures will equalize higher. 



Peculiarities and Troubi.es of the Triple. 49 

Q, How else can we tell if the rubber-seated 
valve leaks ? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe 
from the train line to the triple after everything is 
charged : if the rubber-seated valve leaks, it will draw 
air from the train line ; with the cut-out cock closed, 
this leak is not being supplied, and the reduction will 
cause the brake on this car to apply. 

Q. Give another symptom zvhich indicates a 
leaky rubbei^-seated valve. 

A. The leak above the check 15 caused the check to 
rise to supply it, and when the cavity is again charged 
the check closes. It sometimes rises and closes so fast 
as to make a loud buzzing sound. 

Q. What is usually the cause of leaking in a 
rubber-seated valve f 

A. Dirt on the seat, a poor seat caused by wear, the 
use of oil on the quick-action part of the triple, or using 
too much oil in the brake cylinder, which will work into 
the triple and cause the rubber to decay. 

Q. If dirt is the source of the trouble, how may 
it be rem^oved withottt taking the triple apart? 

A. Set the brake by opening the angle cock after 
closing the cock at the other end of the car. If there is 
dirt on the valve, it may be blown off in this way. 

Q. What besides the slide and rubber-seated 
valves will cause a blow at the exhaust port of the 
triple? 

A. Gasket 14 (Fig. 2) leaking between e and cavity x, 
or the gasket leaking between the brake cylinder and 
auxiliary where the triple is bolted to the cylinder. On 
freight equipments there is a pipe which runs inside the 
auxiliary to the brake cylinder ; this pipe leaking will 
also cause a blow. 



50 Air- Brake Catechism. 

Q, Are these leaks common? 

A. On the contrary, they are very uncommon. The 
blow is almost invariably due to a leaky slide or emer- 
gency valve. 

Q, What effect would the leaking of graduating 
valve 7 {Fig. 2) have ? 

A. The action produced by such a leak is uncertain 
and depends greatly on the conditions connected with it. 
When the brake is applied, the triple assumes lap posi- 
tion after the auxiliary pressure is a trifle less than that 
in the train line. If the graduating valve leaks, the 
auxiliary pressure gradually reduces, and the train-line 
pressure forces the triple piston and slide valve back 
until the blank on the face of the slide valve between 
ports z and n is in front of port r. If the graduating 
valve does leak, no more air can leave port z in this posi- 
tion, and the slide valve stops. This blank space is only 
a trifle wider than port r, so if the valve is in good con- 
dition and works smoothly, the brake should not release ; 
but if it works hard, it is likely to jump a little when it 
moves, and open the exhaust port. 

Q. Give a rule by which to tell how a leaky 
graduating valve will act. 

A. If the triple is in proper condition, a leaky grad- 
uating valve should not release a brake. If the triple is 
a trifle sticky, a brake is likely to be released. A leaky 
slide valve or a slight auxiliary leak in combination with 
a leaking graduating valve will release a brake. 



WESTINGHOUSK FREIGHT EQUIPMENT. 

Q. Name the different parts of the equipment, 

A. 3 (Fig. 7) is the piston sleeve and head , 9 the release 
spring, 4 the front cylinder head, 2 the cylinder body, 
A the leakage groove, 7 the packing leather, 8 the 
expander ring, 6 the follower plate which holds the 
packing leather 7 to its place, B the pipe connecting the 
triple valve and brake cylinder, and 15 the gasket which 
makes a tight joint between the auxiliary, triple 5 and 
pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. 

Q. Explain the use of the release spring g 
{Fig. 7). 

A. When the brake is applied, air is put into the 
cylinder 2 through pipe 5, and the piston 3 is forced to 
the left, compressing the release spring. When the air 
is released from the brake cylinder, the duty of the 
release spring is to force the piston to release position as 
shown in the illustration. 

Q, What enters the sleeve j {Fig- 7) -^ 

A. The push rod through which the braking 
power is transmitted to the brake rigging. 

Q. Of what tise is the expander ring 8 f 

A. To keep the flange of the packing leather 7 
against the walls of the cylinder. The expander ring 
is a round spring. 

Q. Of what use is the packing leather 7 ? 






Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 53 

Ao As air enters the brake cylinder, the flange of the 
packing leather is forced against the walls of the cylin- 
der, thus making a tight joint to prevent the passage of 
the air by the piston and out to the atmosphere through 
the open end of the cylinder at the left. If the leather 
leaks, the brake will leak off. 

Q. Ofzvhat use is the leakage groove A {Fig. f) ? 

A. The piston as shown in the cut is in release 
position. If on a long train there should be any leak on 
the train line that would draw a triple piston out far 
enough to close the exhaust port in the slide valve, and 
there were a leak into the brake cylinder, the pressure 
would gradually accumulate and force the piston out, 
causing the shoes to drag on the wheels were it not for 
the leakage groove. This will allow any small leakage 
into the brake cylinder to pass through the groove and 
out of the other end of the cylinder to the atmosphere. 

If the brake connections are taken up so short that the 
piston will not travel by the leakage groove when the 
brake is set, the air will blow past the piston through 
the groove and release the brake on this car. In this 
case, were it not for the groove, the wheels would be 
slid. 

Q. What is the duty of the pipe B f 
A. When the brake is applied, air passes from the 
auxiliary through the triple and pipe B to the cylinder. 
When the brake is released, air passes from the cylin- 
der through pipe B, the triple exhaust port and out to 
the atmosphere, or, if a retainer is used, it passes from the 
triple into the retainer pipe, which is screwed into the 
triple exhaust, and out of the retainer according to the 
position of its handle. 

Q. Of what tcse is the auxiliai^y 10 {Fig. f) f 
A. This is where the supply of air is stored with 
which to apply the brake on this one car. 



54 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What is the valve on top of the auxiliary ? 

A. It is called the release valve. By lifting on the 
handle of this valve the pressure in the auxiliary lo may 
be released. If this valve leaks, after the brake is 
applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure thus made 
will release the brake. 

Q. What use has the plug ii f 
A. To drain off any accumulation of water in the 
auxiliary. 

Q. What harm will ensiie if gasket i^ leaksS 
A. The leak may be from the auxiliary to the 
atmosphere or from the auxiliary into pipe B leading to 
the brake cylinder. After the brake was applied, the 
reduction of auxiliary pressure caused by this leak 
would allow the train-line pressure to force this triple to 
release position and release this brake. The leak would 
then draw air from the train line through the triple feed 
ports, making a train-line reduction that with any other 
leaks on the train would help to creep on the other 
brakes. 

Q. Is the freight-car equipment different from 
the air-brake eqidpment on the passenger car ? 

A. It is smaller, but the principle of operation is the 
same. In a passenger equipment the pipe B does not 
run through the auxiliary, and the auxiliary and brake 
cylinder are not fastened together. The appearance is 
different, but, aside from size, they are alike. 



PISTON TRAVEL. 

Q. What determines the amount of travel a 
piston zuill have ? 

Ac The slack in the brake rigging and any lost mo- 
tion in the car brought out by the application of the 
brake. 

Q. How is the piston travel ttsually adjusted? 
A. By changing the position of the dead truck 
leverSo 

Q, Which is called the dead lever of a trtick ? 
A. The one held stationary at the top with a pin. 

Q. What is the other lever on the iruck called? 
A. The live lever. 

Q. What is the lever fastened to the piston 
usually called ? 

A. The piston lever. 

Q. What is the corresponding lever at the other 
e7id of the cylinder in a passenger equipment called? 

A. The cylinder lever. 

O. Are these levers ever spoken of differently ? 

A. Yes, sometimes both are referred to as cylinder 
levers. 

Q. In passenger equipm^ent there is sometimes a 
lever between the cylinder levers and truck lever s, 
one end of which is connected to the hand brake and 



56 Air-Brake Catechism. 

the other to the live truck lever. What is this lever 
usually called? 

A. The Hodge, or floating, lever ; the latter name is 
the one more commonly used. 

Q. We have seen in studying, the triple valve 
that a five-pound train-line reduction caused the 
triple to piit five pounds from the auxiliary into the 
brake cylinder. How much pressure does this give 
us in the brake cylinder ? 

A. It depends upon the piston travel. It may be 
more or less than five pounds ; it might be five pounds. 

Q. Explain this answer. 

A. We notice that the auxiliary is much larger than 
the brake cylinder, and five pounds taken from the larger 
space and forced into a smaller will give a greater press- 
ure than that put in ; but it must be remembered that a 
small part of the air put into the cylinder goes through 
the leakage groove before the piston gets by and closes 
it. There is still another point. If no air were put into 
the brake cylinder and the piston were pulled out when 
the exhaust port was closed, a vacuum would be formed. 
When the air enters the cylinder it must first fill this 
space to atmospheric pressure before a gauge placed on 
the cylinder would begin to show any pressure. The 
longer the travel y the more air it would take to fill the 
space and the less pressure there would be for the five 
pounds put into it. 

Q. Which would give a higher pressure for a 
given reduction, long or short piston travel? 

A. Short travel. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because with a short travel the same amount of 
air would be expanded into a smaller space. 



Piston Travel. 



57 



Q. With the freight equipment how much brake- 
cyli^ider pressttre do we get for a seven-pound 
trai7i-line reduction with a 6 and a g-inch travel? 

A. Referring to the table we see that we get 
seventeen and one-half pounds with the 6 inch, and 
eight pounds with the 9-inch travel. 





PISTON TRAVEL AND RESULTANT CYLINDER PRESSURE * 


TRAIN PIPE 












REDUCTION. 














1 




4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 II 
















j PISTON NOT 


7 


25 


23 


i7i 


13 


loi 


8 


( ENTIRELY OUT. 


10 


49 


43 


34 


29 


23i 


194 


17 


14 


13 


57 


5^ 


44 


37* 


33 


29 


24 


20 


16 


. . 




54 


47i 


412 


35 


29 


24 


19 








51 


47 


40 


3^i 


32 


22 










50 


47i 


44 


39 


25 












. . 


47 


45 



*Air Brake Men's 1896 Proceedings. 

The above table is the result of tests made with a freight equip- 
ment. Each result is the average of several tests, and the brake was 
in good condition. There are two spaces where it says "Piston not 
entirely out," where no brake-cylinder pressure is given for a seven- 
pound train-line reduction. This does not mean there was no press- 
\ ure there, as there must have been or the piston could not have gone 
out and compressed the cylinder release spring. The ordinary air 
gauge does not register any pressure less than five pounds, and with 
a seven-pound train-line reduction the pressure gotten in a ten- or 
eleven-inch piston travel is less than five pounds. 

Seventy pounds train-line pressure was used in making these tests. 



Q. With a sixteen-pound reduction ? 

A. Fifty-four pounds with the 6 inch, and thirty- 
five pounds with the 9 inch. 

Q. With a twenty-tzu 0-pound redttction ? 



58 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. After the sixteen-pound reduction, the brake did 
not set any harder on the 6-inch travel because the 
auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized at that 
point, and this brake was full set. With the 9-inch travel 
the air from the auxiliary had 4 inches more space into 
which to expand, and the brake was not full set until 
a twenty- two-pound reduction had been made, giving 
forty-seven and one-half pounds brake-cylinder pressure. 

Q. What does this show ? 

A. That a brake with a short piston travel is more 
powerful than one with a long travel ; that a brake with 
the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized can- 
not be applied any harder by a further reduction of train- 
line pressure, and that if piston travel varied in a long 
train, between 4 and 11 inches, there would be no uni- 
formity in the braking power applied in the different 
parts of a train. 

Q. What would be the pressure, with the travel 
as given in the table^ were the brakes set in emer- 
gency ? 

A. 4 in., 5 in., 6 in., 7 in. piston travel. 

62 61 59i 58J emergency pressure. 
8 in., 9 in., 10 in., 11 in. piston travel. 
57i 56i 55J 55 emergency pressure. 

Q. Why do the brakes set harder with the quick- 
action triple in emergency than in service ? 

A. Because in the emergency application the quick- 
action triples put air from both the auxiliary and train 
line into the brake cylinder. 

Q. Ca7i full emergency pressure be obtained after 
having inade a light train-line reduction in service 
application ? 

A. No. 



Piston Travel. 59 

Q. Can any gain be made ? 

A. Yes, if the reduction has not been too great. By 
referring to the table we see that a thirteen-pound reduc- 
tion sets a 4-inch travel brake in full. If emergency were 
now used this brake would not set any harder, while we 
might gain a little on the long travel. With a given 
train-line reduction, we would gain most on the car with 
the long travel, but on neither would we get full emer- 
gency pressure. 

Q. Can a train be handled smoothly with uneven 
travel throughout the train ? 

A. Not as smoothly as when the travel is more uni- 
form. 

Q. What will be the effect with short travel at 
the head of the train and long at the rear ? 

A. Having more braking power at the head would 
cause the slack to run ahead, causing a jar. 

Q. What if the short travel were at the rear of 
the train ? 

A. The tendency would be for the slack to run back 
and break the train in two, especially if the train were 
on a knoll. 

Q. How else wotild the piston travel affect the 
s7noothness of the braking? 

A. In releasing the brakes. 

Q. Suppose we had a train half of which had 4- 
inch travel and the other half g inch, which brakes 
would start releasing first if the engineer had made 
a ten-pound train-line reduction and then, wishing 
to release the brakes, increased the train-liiie press- 
ure ? 

A. They should all start about the same time, but 



6o Air-Brake Catechism. 

the tendency is always for head brakes to start releasing 
first if the travel is about alike, as the air enters the 
train line from the main reservoir at the front of the 
train, and the pressure is naturally a little higher here 
when recharging. 

Q. Is the same true after a thirteen-pound 
reduction ? 
A. Yes. 
Q. After a twenty-two-pound reduction f 

A. No ; the long travel brakes will start releasing 
first. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Referring to the table we see that the 4-inch 
travel was not applied any harder after a thirteen- pound 
reduction had been made ; but the 9-inch travel con- 
tinued applying harder until a twenty-two-pound reduc- 
tion of train-line pressure had been made. With the 
brakes full set we have fifty-seven pounds pressure in 
the auxiliary and cylinder of the 4-inch travel car and 
forty-seven and one-half on the long. Train-line press- 
ure has to overcome auxiliary pressure to force the 
triple pistons to release position, and it is easier to over- 
come forty-seven and one-half than fifty-seven pounds ; 
hence the triple piston on the long travel car will go to 
release position with less of an increase of train-line 
pressure than will the triple on the short travel car. 

Q. State the general rule in regard to this ques- 
tion. 

A. If reductions have not been continued after cars 
with the short piston travel have been full set, all brakes 
should start releasing about the same time ; but if the 
reductions of train-line pressure are continued after the 
short travel brakes are full set, an increase of train-line 
pressure will start the long travel brakes releasing first. 



Piston Travel. 6i 

Q. If a long and a short travel brake are started 
releasing at the same twie, which will get off first 

and why ? 

A. The short travel, because the piston has a shorter 
distance to go and there is a less volume of air to be 
gotten rid of through the exhaust port of the triple. 

Q. We have two cars with the saine piston travel. 
What is the trouble if both are started releasing at 
the same time and one gets off quicker than t'he 
other? 

A. The release spring in one cylinder is weaker or 
the cylinder corroded. 

Q. What harm would it do to take a piston, 
travel tip to j inches ? 

A. The piston could not get by the leakage groove, 
and the brake would not stay set. 

Q. What harm would it do to let the travel out 
to I J inches ? 

A. The piston would strike the head, and we would 
have no brake on that car. 

Q. Does having very long piston travel in a 
train require any 7nore work of a pump in descend- 
ing grades ? 

A. Yes; the air has to be used more expansively, and 
the pump will have to supply more air in recharging. 

Q. If we try the piston travel on a car when 
standing, will we find it to be the same as when run- 
ning? 

A. No. 

Q, Why not ? 



62 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. For several reasons: the shoes pull down farther 
on the wheels when running ; the king bolts being loose 
allow the trucks to be pulled together ; spring in brake 
beams, loose boxes in jaws, loose brasses on journals, 
the give in old cars, and any lost motion that will throw 
slack into the brake rigging ; all these will cause the 
piston travel while running to be greater than that 
while standing. 

Q. If the piston travel is adjusted when a car is 
loaded, will it remain the same when the car is 
light? 

A. It will, if the brakes are hung from the sand 
plank, but most brakes are hung from the truck bolster 
or the sill of the car. When the car is loaded, the truck 
springs are compressed and the shoes set lower on the 
wheels. When the car is unloaded, the truck springs 
raise the bolster and car body, thus raising the shoes so 
that there is less clearance between the brake shoes and 
wheels. This shortens the piston travel, as the piston . 
does not have to travel so far to bring the shoes up to 
the wheels. 

Q. How could you tell the piston travel on a car 
if it had no air in it ? 

A. This can be told on freight cars where the hand 
brake and air brake move the push rod in the cylinder in 
the same direction when applying the brake. To tell 
the travel, shove the push rod into the cylinder until it 
bottoms. Make a mark on the push rod and set the 
hand brake. The distance the mark on the push rod 
has moved will be, approximately, the piston travel when 
using air. 

Q. How much variation is permissible ? 

A. The smaller the amount of variation the better,, 
but in road service it is the aim to keep piston travel 
between 5 and 8 inches. 



Piston Travei.. 65 

Q, Is there any device which will keep a constant 
piston travel on a car without any outside aid? 

A. Yes, a slack adjuster. 

Q. What slack adjuster is in most general ttse f 

A. The McKee Slack Adjuster. 

Q. How does it work ? 

A. When the brake is applied, if the piston travels 
by the hole into which the pipe is screwed into the cylin- 
der, air flows through the pipe to a small cylinder and 
forces out a small piston in the cylinder, compressing a 
strong spring. When the brake is released, the air leaves 
the small piston and the spring moves it back to its 
original position, carrying with it the stem connecting 
to the ratchet. The pawl turns the ratchet wheel, which 
in turn works the screw and takes up the slack -^^ of an 
inch at a time. 

Q. Is this better than a hand adjust^nent ? 

A. Yes, because it does its work when the car is in 
motion, and true travel is had because all lost motion is 
brought out when the car is in motion. 

Q, What is the most satisfactory travel for 
gejieral use f 

A. Between 6 and 7 inches. 

Q, Where wottld a moderately long travel be 
considered better than a short ? 

A. In a practically level country where, with short 
travel and a large number of air cars in a train, the 
train might be slowed up or stopped with a light train- 
line reduction, thus causing too frequent releases. 

Q. What har'tn would a too short travel do ? 
A. The piston might not get by the leakage groove, 
and the shorter the travel the more danger of sliding the 




p 
< 



ft 



Piston Travel. 65 

■wheels on account of the greater braking power de- 
veloped. A too short travel does not give sufficient 
shoe clearance, and causes a train to pull hard if the 
brake shoes drag. 

Q. On most passengei"- cars piston travel can be 
taken ttp by winding up the hand brake a little, as 
the two brakes work in opposition to each other. 
Is this a good practice? 

A. No ; it is the act of a lazy workman, and is 
dangerous. 

Q. How is it dangerous ? 

A. If the brake is set quickly, it is likely to break 
the brake chain, and if a passenger had hold of a hand 
brake wheel when the brake was applied, if the dog 
were not caught, the wheel flying round might break his 
hand or arm. 



THE WESTINGHOUSE RETAINING VALVE. 

Q. With what equipments is the retaining valve 
used f 

A. Throughout the country on freight cars, and on 
engines, tenders, and passenger cars in mountainous 
country. 

Q. Why do they not use it on passenger cars in 
hilly country ? 

A, It is not necessary, as the higher braking power 
used in passenger service is sufficient to run moderate 
hills with safety. 

Q. Where is it located on cars ? 

A. Usually at the end, close to the brake standard 
on freight cars, and -at the end about on the level of the 
edge of the hood on passenger cars. 

Q. Why is it placed in inaccessible places such as 
underneath on some cars ? 

A. To prevent trainmen from tampering with it in 
descending mountains if they think the engineer is run- 
ning the train too slow. 

Q. To what is it connected ? 

A. To the exhaust port of the triple by means of 
a f-inch pipe. 

Q. What is its use ? 

A. To retain fifteen pounds pressure in the brake 
cylinder to steady the train, and keep its speed from in- 



The Wkstinghouse Retaining Valve. 67 

creasing too rapidly while the engineer is recharging the 
auxiliaries. 

Q. How does the handle of the valve stand when 
not in use ? 

A. Straight down. 

Q, How does it stand when in use ? 

A. In the position shown in the cut (Fig. 9). 




Fig. 9.— Pressure Retaining Vai,ve. 

Q, If the brake is not applied, can it be set by 

turning up the retainer haiidle ? 

A. No; the retainer can be used only to hold air in 
the brake cylinder that has already been put there. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air through the 
retainer when not in tcse. 

A. With the retainer handle pointing down, as 
when not in use, any air coming from the cylinder 



68 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

would pass through ports a, 6, and out to the atmosphere 
through port e. 

Q. Explain the passage of air through the 
retainer when in use, as shown by the cut. 

A. When the engineer increases his train-line 
pressure the triple assumes release position, and the 
air passing from the brake cylinder has to pass out to 
the atmosphere through the retaining valve. With the 
retainer handle turned up, the air passes through port h 
until it strikes the weighted valve 20. Any pressure 
over fifteen pounds forces this valve from its seat and 
passes through the restricted port opening c to the 
atmosphere. When the pressure in the cylinder is 
reduced to fifteen pounds, it is held back by the valve 
20. 

Q. What is the size of the S7nall end of port c ? 

A. One-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 

Q. Why is it made so small f 

A. To keep the brake cylinder pressure from 
escaping to the atmosphere too rapidly after valve 20 is 
lifted. 

Q. How long will it take the cylinder pressure 
to reduce from fifty down to fifteen pounds through 
this retainer ? 

A. About twenty or twenty-five seconds, during 
which time the auxiliaries with an average length of 
train have become pretty well charged. 

Q. Have all retainers this restricted port c? 

A. No ; in some old retainers there are two ports of 
:^-inch diameter each. 

Q. Will a retainer hold more pressure with a 
long or a short piston travel on a car ? 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 69 

A. It holds the same pressure regardless of the 
travel. The volume held is greater on the long travel 
car. 

Q, How do we test retainers ? 

A. Have the engineer apply the brakes, and turn up 
the retainer handles. Then signal the engineer to 
release, and wait about half a minute, after which walk 
along and turn down the handles. If a blow accom- 
panies the turning down of the handles, the retainer is 
working properly, otherwise the pressure has leaked 
away. 

Q, What troubles would make a retainer 
inoperative ? 

x\. A leak in the plug valve operated by the 
retainer handle ; weight 20 (Fig. 9) being gone or dirt on 
its seat ; a split pipe leading from the triple exhaust to the 
retainer, or a leak in the packing leather in the brake 
cylinder which would allow the air to escape to the 
atmosphere. 

Q. What could be the trouble with the retainer 
iff ^fi^^ l^^ brake was applied and the retainer put 
in tcse, no air escaped from it when the engineer 
increased the train-line pressure f 

A. Port c might be blocked. 

Q. If we wish to use a retainer in descending a 
grade, should the handle be turned up before or 
after the brakes are applied? 

A. It makes no difference, if everything is in proper 
condition. 

Q. Explain a case where it would not be proper 
to turn up the retainer handle until just before we 
wish to use it. 



70 Air-Brake Catkchism. 

A. If the rubber-seated or the slide valve in the 
triple leaked, and we turned up the retainer handle, air 
would accumulate to a pressure of fifteen pounds in the 
cylinder if the leakage groove were closed, and set the 
brake on this car. If the train were just pulling over a 
summit, the brake being on might stall the train. 

Q. Give a rule to produce best results in using 
the retainer. 

A. In testing retainers while standing, turn up the 
handles at your convenience before or after the brakes 
are applied ; but when using them on the road, turn 
them up after the brakes are applied or a short time 
before wishing to use them. 

Q. Is a retainer ever used except to steady a 
train when recharging? 

A. Yes ; when brakes have been applied too hard, 
a few are sometimes used to keep the slack bunched 
after releasing, when drifting along preparatory to mak- 
ing a stop. 

Q. Set a brake with the full service application, 
then turn up the retainer handle, release and 
recharge. After charging the aitxiliary in full 
again, make a full service reduction. Will the 
brake set any harder one time than a7iother ? 

A. Yes, it will set harder the second time. 

Q. Why? 

A. When we started to apply the brakes the first 
time, we had seventy pounds auxiliary pressure and 
nothing in the brake cylinder. The second time we 
had seventy in the auxiliary and fifteen pounds in the 
brake cylinder. By comparison we see that we had 
more air the second time with which to do our braking, 
and the pressures will therefore equalize higher. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 71 

Q. Would we gain nioi^e the second time over 
that of the first with a long or a short piston 

travel? 

A. With the long, because the retaining valve on the 
long travel car retains the same number of pounds in 
the cylinder as on the short one, but a larger volume ; 
having a greater volume the pressures equalize corres- 
pondingly higher. 

Q, Do we gain the whole fifteen pounds more 
the second ti^ne over what is obtained the first ? 

A. No ; we gain from about three to six pounds 
pressure, according to the piston travel. 

Q. About how much pressure do we get in the 
brake cylinder for a five-pound traiii-line reduction ? 

A. It varies from seven to eleven pounds with aver- 
age piston travel. It may be more or less, but this 
would be a fair average. 

Q. After getting the use of the fiftee^i pounds 
that the retainer holds, how much press^ore wotUd 
we then get in the cylinder for a five-pound train- 
line reduction with an average piston travel? 

A. Between thirty and forty pounds. 

Q. Where a twenty-pound reduction will set a 
brake in full without the aid of the retainer, how 
vtuch reduction is necessary with the fifteen pounds 
it holds to aid? 

A. From twelve to fifteen pounds with fair travel. 

Q. Name another gain after obtaining the use 
of the retainer. 

A. If we have to apply the brakes in full, it does not 
take so long to recharge, as the auxiliary and brake- 



72 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

cylinder pressures equalize higher with the retainer to 
aid. 

Q. How could we tell if it was safe to turn up a 
retainer handle before reaching the top of a hill and 
not have the brakes drag? 

A. Put the hand over the exhaust port and hold it 
there a few seconds to see if any air is issuing ; if not, it 
is safe to turn up the handle. 

Table. 

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 



Piston 


Emer- 


Emergency sLbs.Serv.^ 


Reduc. 
with Ret. 


• Full FuUServ. 


travel 


gency 


with Ret. 


Reduction 


Service with Ret. 


Inches 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


4 


62 


65 


23 


59 


57i 


61 


5 


6l 


63 


I9J 


55 


55J 


59 


6 


59i 


63 


i3i 


51 


53 


58 


7 


58i 


62 


Hi 


43 


52 


57 


8 


57J 


62 


10 


38 


5oi 


56 


9 


56i 


61J 


8 


35 


48 


55 


lO 


55J 


61 


+ 


32 


46 


54 


II 


55 


60 


+ 


30 


45 


53 



The above figures were obtained by taking an average of four tests 
for each condition. 

Each test was made with a train-line and auxiliary pressure of sev- 
enty pounds. 

The first column represents the piston travel. 

The second column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
in emergency. 

The third column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in 
emergency after the retainer has been used ; that is, there was al- 
ready a pressure of fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder held by the 
retainer when the emergency was used. 



The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 73 

The fourth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a five-pound service reduction. 

The fifth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obteined 
with a five-pound service reduction after once obtaining the use of the 
air held in the cylinder by the use of the retainer. 

The sixth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a full service reduction. 

The seventh column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained 
with a full service reduction after getting the use of the retainer. 

+ simply means that the gauge used registered no pressure less 
than five pounds. With a ii-inch travel the air is expanded into so 
large a space that a very small pressure is obtained. 

The table should be read from the left to the right. 

Q. Do the latest retaining valves have the ports in the 
plug valve as shown in Fig. 9 ? 

A. No ; grooves are made on the outside of the phig, 
but they correspond exactly in purpose with the holes 
as shown. 



MAIN RESERVOIR. 

Q. Where does the air go when it leaves the 
pump f 

A. To tlie main reservoir. 

Q. Where does main reservoir pressure begin 
and where end? 

A. It begins wliere the air leaves the pump and ends 
at the engineer's valve. 

Q. What is the object of the main reservoir ? 

A. Its object is to act as a storehouse in which to 
keep a reserve pressure to throw into the train line to 
release brakes and recharge auxiliaries. It also acts to 
collect most of the dirt, oil, and moisture that leaves the 
pump. 

Q. How m.uch main reservoir pressure is usual- 
ly carried ? 

A. Usually ninety pounds, although more is used in 
mountainous country, or when using the high-speed 
brake. 

Q. What size main reservoir is considered 
proper for freight service ? 

A. One whose capacity is not less than 20,000 cubic 
inches. 

Q, How large should any main reservoir be f 
A. In releasing brakes in any service the main 
reservoir must be large enough so that, when the brakes 



Main Rkservoir. 75 

are applied and we wish to release them, the main 
reservoir pressure will equalize with that in the train 
line, when connected with it, at a sufficiently high 
pressure to insure the prompt and certain release of the 
brakes. 

Q. Why is a larger main reservoir necessary in 
freight tha7i in passeitger service ? 

A. Because there are a greater number of auxiliaries 
to charge in freight service and a longer train line to 
supply. 

Q. When is a large main reservoir with full 
pressure most essential? 

A. After an emergency application, and especially 
after a break in two. 

Q. What results are likely to follow the use of 
small main reservoirs on engines pulling long trains ? 

A. A pump is likely to heat, brakes are likely to 
stick, and we will have a hard handling rotary. 

Q. Why is a pU7np more likely to heat with a 
small main reservoir ? 

A. Because the smaller the main reservoir, the high- 
er the pressure has to be carried, and the higher the 
pressure the more is heat generated in compressing the 
air ; therefore the pump is more likely to heat and burn 
out the packing. 

A second reason is that with a small reservoir, when 
releasing brakes, the pump has to work faster to charge 
the auxiliaries before the speed of the train increases too 
much. The pump working very fast does not have 
time to take in a full cylinder of air each stroke. The 
pump then has to make more strokes to compress the 
same amount of air, than it would were it working more 
slowly. 



76 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. State the gains made by using a large main 
reservoir. 

A. Pressure in the main reservoir and train line will 
equalize higher when releasing, auxiliaries will be 
charged more quickly, the pump is not so likely to heat, 
and, not working so rapidly or against so high a pressure, 
will not wear out so fast, and the brakes are not so likely 
to stick. 

Q. What should be the location of a main reser- 
voir ? 

A. If possible, at the lowest point in the air-brake 
system. 

Q, Why? 

A. To have all the dirt and oil possible drained into 
it and drawn off through the bleed cock. 

Q. Where is the main reservoir usually located? 

A. Between the frames back of the cylinder saddle. 

Q. Should it be located there ? 

A. Yes, when it is possible to place there a main 
reservoir of the regulation size ; but the size must not 
be sacrificed for the position. 

Q. Where else is it sometimes located? 
A. Under the foot-boards of the cab and sometimes 
on the tank. 

Q, Is it right to locate it on the tank ? 
A. Yes, if the requisite volume can be obtained in 
no other way ; otherwise, no. 

Q. Why is it not a desirable position ? 

A, Oil and dirt will not drain into it as they should, 
and when it is so located, two lines of hose have to run 
between the tank and engine, one to carry the air from 
the pump to the main reservoir, and the other to bring 



Main Reskrvoir. "]"] 

the pressure from the reservoir to the engineer's valve. 
These hose get full of oil and dirt, decay, burst, and in 
the end prove very expensive. 

Q. How often sJioidd the main reservoi7^ be 
drained? 

A. At the end of each trip. 

Q, Where does this water found in the main 
reservoir come from ? 

A. Most of it is drawn from the atmosphere, and 
given off when the particles of air are pressed together. 

Q. Does any of the condensed steam fro7n the 
steam end of the pump leak by the piston rod and 
then pass into the main reservoir with the com- 
pressed air ? 

A. A trifle ; but this is an inappreciable amount 
compared with what comes from the atmosphere, especi- 
ally on rainy days. 

The following was taken from the '96 Proceedings of 
the Air Brake Association. There were four reservoirs, 
each with a capacity of 12,200 cubic inches, and they 
could all be used together or cut out at will. The test 
was made on a twenty-five car train, and shows the ad- 
vantage of having a large volume of air in the main 
reservoir to equalize with that in the train line. 

Number of Initial reservoir Initial pressure Pressure 
reservoirs pressure in train pipe equalized at 

cut in. in pounds. in pounds. in pounds. 



4 


100 





50 


2 


100 





35 


4 


100 


50 


72 


4 


90 


50 


67 


2 


no 


50 


68 


2 


100 


50 


!^ 


2 


90 


50 


61 



78 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Main Reservoir Sizes. 



Inches, outside. 




Capacity. 




22 >^ X 34 


about 


11,200 


cubic inches. 


24>^ X 34 
26>^ X 34 

20>^ X 41 




14,000 
15,800 
12,200 






22>^ X 41 




14,000 






2^% X 41 
261^ X 41 




17,400 
20,000 







Note. — Main reservoir capacity for passenger en- 
gines should not be less than 16,000, and for freight 
engines not less than 40,000 cubic inches ; however, the 
best results are obtained on freight engines equipped 
with a main reservoir having a capacity of from 40,000 
to 50,000 cubic inches. With this large capacity reser- 
voir the pump may be run slower, it is less likely to 
heat, the brakes can be released more promptly, and a 
much quicker recharge of the auxiliaries is possible. 



WBSTINGHOUSB ENGINEER'S BRAKE 
VALVES. 

Q. What was the first form of valve ttsed ? 
A. That which was known as the old three-way 
cock. 

Q. With what equipment was this ttsed f 
A. With the straight air, with the plain automatic, 
and for a time, by a good many roads, with the quick- 
action brake. 

Q, What objection was there to it ? 
A. It was not sufficiently sensitive, and there was 
great danger of throwing the brakes into emergency. 

Q, Why ? 

A. Because reductions of train-line pressure were 
made by instinct or sense of sound. An engineer hav- 
ing a short train to-day and a long one to-morrow could 
scarcely avoid doing poor braking, as his valve was noth- 
ing much more than a plug valve. A reduction that 
was a trifle too heavy would throw the triples into quick 
action, and on a long train the reduction could not be 
made too slow, or the air would blow through the leak- 
age grooves in the brake cylinders. If the escape of air 
from the train line were suddenly checked, the air from 
the rear rushing ahead had a tendency to kick off some 
of the head brakes. 

Q. In changing the valve what was the object ? 
A. To obtain a valve that would mechanically and 



8o Air-Brake Catechism. 

gradually make the desired reduction of train-line press- 
ure regardless of the length of the train. 

Q. Was this done* immediately ? 
A. No; several forms of valves were made before 
those now in use. 

Q. What are the ones now in use ? 

A. . The D 8 and the D 5, K 6, or F 6 ; the last three 
are the same, the different letters simply refer to different 
catalogues issued by the Westinghouse Company. 

Q. Which is the one most in use and the one sent 
out with all fnodern equipment ? 
A. The F 6 valve. 

Q, What should be the location of an engineer s 
'valve f 

A. Within easy reach of the engineer and far enough 
from the boiler that the heat will not dry out and crack 
the gaskets. 



F 6 ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE. 

Q. Explain the different parts of the ejigiiieers 
brake valve. 

A. X, F, T, IF, and R are explained by referring to 
Fig. lo. 

60 and 61 are known respectively as upper and lower 
body gasket. 

43 is the rotary valve. 

32 a gasket to keep main reservoir pressure from leak- 
ing to the atmosphere. 

The space above piston 47 is known as cavity I) ; 
this cavity is connected with the little drum by the 
pipe 50. 

47 is the equalizing piston, 51 the train-line exhaust. 

33 and 34 are known as the upper and lower valve 
body. 

There is a tee in pipe 45 just after it leaves the valve, 
one branch of which goes to the red hand on the gauge 
and the other to the pump governor. 

The other parts need no naming. 

Q. Of what use is the engineer s valve ? 

A. To give the engineer complete control of the flow 
of air. 

Q. How many positions are there for the en- 
gineer s valve ? 

A. Five. 

Q. Name them. 



r^ 



To Pump GoycRwofra Cauce 
*-REO hand- 
Main Reservoir Pressure: 




To Gauge 
^ -SLACK hand- 
Train Ptf»E PlRESS.UFtf 



H ^~- — lb Small I^eservoir 

Fig. io,-F 6 Brafe; Vai^ve, 



F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 8;^ 

A. Full release, running, lap, service, and emergenc^- 
positions. 

0. Describe the ttse of the different positions, 

A. Full release is that used for releasing brakes. 

Running position is the one used when running on 
the road and when the brakes are inoperative. 

lyap position is that which blanks all ports in the 
valve. 

Service is the position used when the brakes are to be 
applied gradually. 

Emergency is the position used when the brakes are 
to be applied suddenly. 

Q. What connections do we have with the valve 
171 full release ? 

A. A direct connection between the main reser\^oir 
and train line through a large port and between the 
main reservoir and cavity D, or the little drum, through 
two small ports. 

Q. Explain the flow of air from the main 
reservoir throttgh the engineer s valve in this 
position. 

A, In this positior .ne main reservoir pressure enters 
the valve at A", passes through port J., port a of the ro- 
tary 43, port h of the rotary seat 33 (Figs. 10 and 11) , up 
into cavity c of the rotary and through port I into the train 
line at F. As the air passes through cavity c of the 
rotary on its way to the train line, it is free to pass 
through port g (Fig. 11) into cavity D. In this position, 
porty of the rotary (Fig. 12) is over port e in the rotary 
seat (Fig. 11) also leading to the little drum, or cavity B. 

Q. Ca7t main reservoir pressure reach the top 
of the rotary ^j at all tifnes f 
A. Yes. 



To Pump Governor a Gauge: 

^ -RED HAND- 

Main Reservoir Pressure 




To Gauge 

-BLACK HAND- 

Train Pipe Pressure 



Fig. iIo— F 6 Brake Vai^ve:. 



F 6 Engineer's Brake Vai.ve. 85 

Q. How niMch viain reservoii^ pressure is visual- 
ly carried except iii ve^y moiuttainous co7Lntry ? 
A. Ninety pounds. 

Q. Hoiv much pressure would we get on the 
main reservoir ^ the train line and the little drttm, 
were the handle of the engineer s valve to be left in 
full release position until the ptimp stopped ? 

A. Ninety pounds in eacli, as there is a direct con- 
nection between the three, 

Q. What is the small blow we hear if the en- 
gii'ieers valve is allowed to remain in full release ? 

A. It is the escape of main reservoir pressure through 
the warning port of the rotary into the emergency ex- 
haust (Fig. 11) and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is this port and its purpose f 
A. It is a port, one end of which is about as large as 
a pin. When the engineer hears this blow it means to 
him that he must be careful or he will get ninety pounds 
pressure on the train line if he leaves the handle of his 
valve in full release position too long. 

Q. How much pre ss2tre is usually carried on the 
train line and little drtt7n in country 7iot moun- 
tainous ? 

Ao Seventy pounds. 

Q. Hoiv does tJie engineer preveiit a ninety- 
potmd pressure getting on the train line and little 
drttm ? 

A. By moving the valve to the second or running 
position. 

Q, Why do we get only seventy pou7tds pressure 
on the train line with the valve in running position ? 




Feed Valv£ 



Fig. 12.— F 6 Brake VaIvVE. 



F 6 Engineer's Brake Vaeve. 87 

A. Because in this position all air passing into the 
train line from the main reservoir has to pass through 
the feed valve (Fig. 12), and this is adjusted to close as 
soon as there is a seventy-pound pressure on the train 
line. 

Q, In ritnning position we have the position of 
the rotary as showii in Fig. 12. Explain tJie pas- 
sage of air in this position. 

A. The main reservoir pressure passes through th^ 
ports y, / and / ^ (Figs. 11 and 12) into the feed valve, o^ 
train-line governor as it is more commonly called ; 
thence through port i (Fig. 11) into port I (Figs. 10 and 11) 
and out into the train line at F. As the pressure passes 
through port I into the train line it is also free to pass 
up into cavity c of the rotary which is still over port I as 
seen in Fig. 10. Port g is still exposed under cavity c, 
and at the same time the air passes through the train- 
line governor into the train line, it also passes into cavity 
c of the rotary, port g of the rotary seat (Fig. 11) and 
into cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. The train-line governor closes when there are 
seventy pounds on the train line with the valve in 
running position. How much pressure do we get 
in the main reservoir with the valve in this position f 

A= Ninety pounds. 

Q, What stops the pump when there are ninety 
pounds on the m.ain reservoir ? 

A. The pump governor, which is connected with 
main reservoir pressure at 45 (Fig. 10). 

Q. Is the pump governor always set at ninety 
pounds f 

A. No ; only in level and hilly country. In moun- 
tainous country, it is set much higher, also in level 
country where exceptionally long trains are handled. 



88. Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. The red hand on the gauge represents i7iai7i 
reservoir pressure, and the black hand is said to 
represent that on the train line. Is the pipe lead- 
ing to the black hand connected directly to the trai^i 
liite ? 

A. No ; it is connected to little drum pressure. (See 
46, Fig. 10.) 

Q. Why is it called train-line pressure if not 
coniiected to it f 

A. Because in full release or running position port g 
furnishes a direct connection between the little drum 
and train line, and the pressures must be equal. 

Q. What is the next positio7i to the right of 
running position ? ' 

A. Lap position. 

Q. How does the air flow with the valve in this 
position ? 

A. There is no passage of the air as all ports are 
blanked. The rotary is moved around sufficiently to 
shut oflf port j in the rotary from port / in the rotary 
seat, and a small lug on the inside rim of the rotary 
also covers port ^, thus separating the train line from 
the little drum. In this position the main reservoir, 
train-line and little drum pressures are each by them- 
selves. 

Q. What is the dividing line betweeit the train- 
line and little drum pressures in this position? 
A. The equalizing piston 47 (Fig. 10). 

Q. Do we still refer to the black hand as repre- 
senting train-line pressure on lap, knowing the ports 
are closed between the little drtim and train line ? 

A. Yes. 



F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 89 

Q. If there zuere a leak on the train line, W02ild 
the black hand fall back if the valve is on lap ? 
A. Yes, but slowly. 

Q, Why ? 

A. Because in order to have piston 47 work smoothly 
the packing ring 48 (Fig. 10) must not be absolutely 
tight. If the train line leaks, the little drum pressure 
will gradually leak by the packing ring into the train 
line and equalize with it. 

Q, What would happen if this packing ring 
were tight? 

A. With the valve on lap all train-line pressure could 
leak away and the black hand on the gauge would not 
show it. 

Q. What is the next position to the ^Hght of lap f 

A. Service position. 

Q, What is this position used for ? 

A. To make a gradual application of the brakes. 

Q. Explain this position. 

A. In this position, a groove p (Fig. 13) of the rotary 
connects port e (Fig. 11) leading to the little drum 
through rotary seat with a groove /i (Fig. 11) also in the 
rotary seat ; h leads into the emergency exhaust h (Fig. 
11), which is directly connected with the atmosphere as 
shown by the dotted lines. We then have a direct con- 
nection from the little drum to the atmosphere through 
small ports. 

Q. What is port e called? 

A, The preliminary exhaust port. This hole is 
bushed, and the bushing has a small taper hole through 
it. 



90 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. What effect does taking air f 7^ otn the little 
drum have ? 

^ A. It reduces the pressure on top of piston 47. Tlie 
pressures were the same on both sides of it, but when 
the reduction is made from the little drum in service 
position, it leaves piston 47 with the greater pressure 
underneath on the train-line side of the piston. 




Fig. 13. — A ViKw of the Bottom Sidk of thk Rotary 43. 



Q. What effect has this? 

A. The train-line pressure being greater forces piston 
47 from its seat and allows train-line pressure to escape 
to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust 51 
(Fig. 10). 

Q. How long does piston ^/ remain off its seat f 

A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater 
than that in the little drum. When the little drum 



F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 91 

pressure is a trifle greater than tlie train line, piston 47 
is forced to its seat. 

Q. Do zue still speak of the black hand as 7'cpre- 
senting train-lme pressure ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. How do we know it is the same as that in 
the littU dmm to which the ga?ige pipe leading to 
the black hand is connected ? 

A. Because tlie equalizing piston will take the same 
amount of pressure from the train line before it closes 
that the engineer took from the little drum. 



Q. If the e7igineer wishes to apply brakes gra 
ally, does he take air from the trai^i line ? 

A. No ; he takes it from the little drum, and piston 
47 takes care of the train line. 

Q. To what else in the brake system is the piston 
4y similar in its zuork ? 

A. The triple piston (Fig. 2)0 

Q. What is the next position to the right of 
service ? 

A. Emergency position. 
Q. Explain this positioji. 

A. The rotary is moved around so that the large 
cavity c (Fig. 13) is directly over the large ports / and h 
of the rotary seat (Fig. 11). Air passes from the train 
line at I into cavity c and out to the atmosphere through 
port h. 

Q, What is the object of using the large ports ? 
A. To get a very sudden reduction on the train line 
to cause the triple valves to go into quick action. 



92 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q. Is the reduction necessarily heavy to obtain 
quick action ? 

A. No ; it is quick. 

Q, . Does the little drum pressure or the equaliz- 
i7ig piston play any part in the emergency dpplica- 
tion ? 

A. None whatever. 

Q. In rimning position when the pump stops we 
have ninety pounds in the main reservoir and seventy 
on the train line. What is the difference between 
the pressure in the main reservoir and the train 
line called? 

A. Excess pressure. 

Q. What is the use of excess pressure ? 

A. It is a reserve power to throw into the train line, 
when the valve is placed in release position, to force the 
triple pistons to release position and help recharge the 
auxiliary reservoirs. 

Q, If the pitmp were started with the handle of 
the valve on lap, how much pressure would we get in 
the main reservoir and how much in the traiii line f 

A. Ninety pounds in the main reservoir and noth- 
ing in the train lineo 



FEED VALVE OR TRAIN-LINE GOVERNOR. 

Q. What is the duty of the train-lme governor f 

A. To keep any desired pressure on the train line 
with the handle of the engineer's valve in running 
position. 

Q. Does it play a part in any other than run- 
ning position ? 

A. No. 

Q. Explain the action of the governor with the 
engineer s valve in running positio7i. 

A. The spring 68 (Fig. 14) supports piston 74, and the 
piston holds the valve 63 from its seat. As long as the air 
pressure on top of the piston is less than the tension of 
the spring 68, valve 63 is held from its seat, and main 
reservoir pressure coming in through port / feedj into 
port i as indicated by the arrow, and on into the traiu 
line. When the pressure above the piston is greater 
than the tension of the spring 68, the piston is forced 
down, allowing valve 63 to seat. 

Q. How is the train-line pressure regulated f 

A. By screwing up on the nut 70 to strengthen the 
spring and hold valve 63 from its seat longer to gain 
train-line pressure, and lowering nut 70 to weaken train- 
line pressure. 

Q. Of what ^cse are the rubber gaskets 7^ and 
tJie packi^ig ring 6j? 



94 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



A. To keep train-line pressure from leaking down 
through the governor and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. What gover7ior troubles will allow full maifi 
reservoir pressure to go through the governor to 
train line? 




Fig. 14.— Fkkd Vai,v^ or Train-Line Governor. 

A. (i) Dirt or scale on the seat of the valve 63 
(Fig. 14). ^ 

( 2 ) Spring 68 being screwed up too stiff. 

(3) A leak between the holes of the gasket ^(y where 
the governor is bolted to the body of the engineer's valve. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 95 

(4) The lower body of the governor 69 being screwed 
up too tight. 

Q. Explain why the above troubles would pre- 
vent the governor fr 0771 shutti7tg off the mai7i reser- 
voir pressure when the desired a77iou7it of trai7i- 
lijie pressure had bee7i reached. 

A. (i) Dirt or scale would not allow valve 63 to 
seat. 

(2) Spring 68 being too stiff would hold valve 63 from 
its seat too long. 

(3) The following sketch showing the gasket between 
the train-line governor and the engineer's valve will 
explain the third trouble and its effect. The dotted line 
represents the leak^ 




O G>--© O 




Fig. 15. 

(4) The bottom casing 69 being screwed up too tight 
would crush the rubber gasket 72 at the outer edge. 
The inside of the gasket, not being injured, would lift 
the piston so high that valve 63 could not get low 
enough to seat. In this case the spring 68 could be 
taken entirely out, and still we could get no excess as 
our train-line and main reservoir pressures would equal- 
ize. 

Q, If we wish to re7nove valve 6j to clea7i it 
when there is a train coupled to the e7igine, how 
should it be done ? 



96 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Turn the cut-out cock in the train line under the 
engineer's valve and place the handle in service position 
to remove the train-line pressure between the engineer's 
valve and the cut-out cock. Then remove nut 65 and 
valve 63. 

Q, How should valve 6j be cleaned? 

A. With oil. The seat should never be scraped to re- 
move any gum, as it is a lead seat and a scratch would 
ruin it. 

O. What should be done before replacing valve 

63? 

A. The valve should be moved to running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale. 

Q. Does the valve 6j begin to close before full 
train- line pressure is reached? 

A. Yes ; the spring 68 begins to be compressed a 
little before full train pressure is reached so that the last 
few pounds feed more slowly into the train line. 

Q. How zvouldyou remove piston y/j. if it stuck ? 

A. First remove valve 63 as just described, and then 
replace the cap nut 65. Next remove the lower body 
68. Grasp the stem of the piston 66 with the right 
hand and move the handle of the engineer's valve to 
running position with the left. The main reservoir 
pressure coming in will blow out the piston, after which 
lap the valve. Never drive the piston out by putting a 
punch on the stem unless the punch is at least as large 
as the stem. 

Q. In replacing piston 7^, what care sho7ild be 
exercised ? 

A. To carefully enter the packing ring of the piston 
into the brass bushing. Never pound it in as some- 
thing would be broken or sprung. 



Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 97 

Q. With the handle of the engineer'' s valve oji 
lap, could the tram-line governor be re^noved e^ttirely 
without losing main reservoir pressure ? 

A. Yes ; all ports are blocked, and main reservoir 
pressure could not get through the rotary in this 
position. 

Q. What harm zuould a leak by the packing ring 
6y and throngh the rubber gaskets y2 do ? 

A. No harm, except what any small leakage of 
train-line pressure would do. 



THE IvlTTIvK DRUM, OR CAVITY D. 




Fig. i6.— Thk Litti^e: Drum, or Cavity D. 

Q. How else is the little drum^ or cavity D, some- 
times spoken of ? 

A. As the engineer's equalizing auxiliary. 

Q, Where is the little drum ttsually located? 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab, on either the 
fireman's or engineer's side, according to which has the 
most free space. 

Q, What is the object of the little drum ? 

A. To furnish a volume of air on top of the equaliz- 
ing piston in the engineer's valve. 

Q. Would not the air in the small cavity over 



The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 99 

tJie equalizing pisto7i hold air enougJi to keep the 
piston on its seat ? 

A. Yes ; but there is not a sufficient volume there 
to draw from in making service reductions to make 
them sufficiently gradual. 

Q. What would happen when the engineei^ put 
the handle of the engineer's valve ifi service position^ 
if there were no little drum to furnish a vohime of 
air on top of the equalizi^ig pisto7i 9 

A. The air would leave the top of the piston in a 
flash on account of the small volume, the black hand on 
the gauge would fall to the pin, the equalizing piston 
rise full stroke, all train-line pressure would rush to the 
atmosphere through the train-line exhaust, and the en- 
gineer would have lost control of the brakes. 

Q. Hozu would the brakes on the train act ? 

A. If a long train were coupled to the engine, the 
brakes would go full set in a service application ; but if 
a train of less than about six or seven cars, the brakes 
would go into quick action. 

Q. Why f till service on a long train and quick 
action on a short one ? 

A. On a short train, w^hen the equalizing piston flew 
up, air from the train line would go to the atmosphere 
through the train-line exhaust faster than the auxiliary 
pressure could get from the auxiliary to the brake 
cylinder through the service port of the triple slide valve. 
When the auxiliary pressures were enough stronger than 
that on the train line, they would force out the triple 
pistons and compress the graduating springs, causing 
the triples to go into quick action. 

On a train of any length the train-line pressure, due 
to the greater volume on the train line, could not get out 
of the train-line exhaust any faster than the auxiliary 



loo Air-Bra KE CaT£:chism. 

pressure could feed through the slide valves to the brake 
cylinders, and the auxiliary pressures would not be 
strong enough to compress the graduating springs, but, 
losing all train-line pressure, would apply the brakes in 
full service application. 

Q. The three-way cock was done away with to 
get a valve that would ^^nechanically 77take a gi'-adital 
desired train-line reduction regardless of the length 
of the train. What is it about the valve now used 
that allows this to be done? 

A. The little drum in conjunction with the equaliz- 
ing piston. 

Q. Does an e^igineer have to leave the handle 
of the engineer s valve in service position any longer 
to make a train-line reduction of five pounds on 
a lono- train tha1^ on a short one? 

o 

A. No; all little drums are of the same size. If a 
five-pound train-line reduction is desired, the engineer 
releases five pounds from the little drum to the atmos- 
phere, and the equalizing piston takes care of the train- 
line pressure regardless of the length of the train. 

Q. If by any chance the pipe leadi^ig to the 
little driim were broken off, could we still handle 
the brakes? 

A. Yes, 

O. How ? 

A. Plug the broken pipe and also the train-line ex- 
haust. When wishing to apply the brakes in service, 
our service position would be of no use as the train- line 
exhaust is plugged ; so move the valve part way into 
emergency position, being careful not to get it too far 
into emergency position so as to make too sudden a re- 
duction, and when putting the valve back on lap do not 



The lyiTTLE Drum, or Cavity D. ioi 

stop the train-line reduction too quickly or the surge of 
air forward may release some of the head brakes. 

Q. In such a case, into what have we traiis- 
fo7^med 02Lr efficient valve ? 

A. Practically into an old three-way cock. 

Q. How do we tell if the preliminary exhattst 
port e is free from gum and corrosion? 

A. Flace the engineer's valve in service position and 
watch the black hand on the gauge. It should take 
about five or six seconds to reduce the pressure in the 
little drum from seventy to fifty pounds through the 
preliminary exhaust port. 

Q. What, besides the fact that the preliminary 
exhaust port is partially closed, would cause it to 
take longer than six seconds to make this reduction ? 

A. See the engineer's valve (Fig. lo). If the gasket 
6 1 leaked between the main reservoir and little drum, or 
between the train line and little drum, or if the packing 
ring 48 were sufficiently loose to allow train-line press- 
ure to feed by too quickly. 

• Q. If it takes less than five seconds to 7nake 
this reduction, what is probably the matter ? 

A. There is a leak somewhere in the connection to 
the little drum, which helps make the reduction. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
F 6 VALVE. 

Q. What two troubles in the engineer s valve 
aside from those in the trai?i-line governor woiild 
not permit any excess pressure with the handle of 
the engineer s valve in running position ? 

A. A leak in the lower gasket 6i (Fig. lo) between 
the main reservoir and the little drum and a leaky 
rotary. 

Q. Why does air leaking from the main reser- 
voir to the little drum in running position not per- 
mit any excess pressttre ? 

A. Because in this position the little drum and train 
line are directly connected. 

Q. Does gasket 6i leak very often ? 

A. No ; this is a trouble seldom encountered. 

Q. What indications are given by such a leak ? 

A. In service position it would take longer to make 
a given reduction on the little drum, as air is feeding in 
slowly at the same time it is being taken out through 
the preliminary exhaust. As soon as the valve was 
placed on lap the black hand would quickly feed up to 
main reservoir pressure. 

Q. If the air were leaking into the little drum 
by gasket 6i as fast as it was being removed throttgh 
the preliminary exhaust port, zuhat would happen? 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the F 6 Valve. 103 

A. The equalizing piston could not be raised and the 
only way the brakes could be applied would be by using 
the emergency position. 

Q, How does the leaking of the rotary do away 
with excess? 

A. The air from the main reservoir leaks under the 
rotary seat directly into the train line. 

Q. What harm besides that of destroying excess 
zuill result from a leaky rotary ? 

A. We get main reservoir pressure on the train line 
and consequently in the auxiliaries, and the use of ninety 
instead of seventy pounds for braking purposes would 
slide the wheels. After the brakes were applied and the 
valve was on lap, air leaking into the train line from 
the main reservoir would gradually increase train-line 
pressure and force triples to release position. Without 
the proper excess it would also be hard to release brakes. 

Q. How would you test for a leaky rotary? 

A. Start the pump with the valve handle on lap. If 
the black hand starts, the rotary leaks. Gasket 61 leak- 
ing would also cause this, but this leak so seldom hap- 
pens, it may be disregarded in practice^ 

Q. Give a7iother way of testing for a leaky 
rotary. 

A. Put the valve on lap and drain everything but the 
main reservoir ; open the angle coqk at the rear of the 
tender and put the hose in a pail of water. If bubbles 
rise to the surface the rotary is leaking. 

Q. Which is the better test ? 

A. The second is the more delicate test, but the first 
is sufficiently practical and is easier. 



I04 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Why should everything be drained in making 
the water test ? 

A, Because with all air taken from the train line by 
opening the angle cock at the rear of the tender, air 
leaking by the packing ring 48 in the piston 47 into the 
train line would cause bubbles to rise to the surface of 
the water. The same thing would result if air from the 
tender and driver brake auxiliaries leaked by the triple 
piston-packing rings. The bubbles would seem to indi- 
cate a leaky rotary, while it was merely an improperly 
conducted test. - 

Q. Why can we someti^nes get no excess with the 
valve in running position when the engine is alone, 
although the hands will stand properly at ninety 
and seventy when the engine is cotpled to a train ? 

A. It simply means that when coupled to a train the 
leaks on the train compensate for the leak through the 
engineer's valve. 

Q. What will cause a constant leak out of the 
. train-line exhaust 5/ (Fig. 10 ) , whether the valve 
is on full release, running, or lap position ? 

A. Dirt on the seat of the valve at the end of the 
stem of piston 47. 

Q. What is the trotible if this leak does not exist 
in fell release or running position, but begins as 
soon as the valve is placed on lap ? 

A. A leakage of little drum pressure causes piston 47 
to rise. 

Q. Where could this leak be ? 

A. In the little drum itself ; in the pipe leading to it ; 
in the pipe leading to the black hand on the gauge ; 
gasket 61 leaking so as to allow little drum pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere ; a scratch on the rotary seat 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the F 6 Valve. 105 

between the preliminary exhaust port e and the groove 
h leading to the atmosphere. 

O. Jf7iy does it leak on lap and not on running 
or /nil release position ? 

A. Because the leak is not fed on lap, as all ports are 
closed, but it is in the other two positions. 

Q. If the tiuo hands on the gange do not shozu 
the same pressure luhen the valve is left in fill re- 
lease position, what is the trouble? 

A. The gauge is incorrect. The main reservoir and 
train line being directly connected in this position both 
gauge hands should show the same pressure. 

Q. What C02ild be the trouble if in running 
positio7i the 7^ed hand showed seventy a7id the black 
ninety pounds ? 

A. The gauge pipes have been connected to the 
wrong hands. 

Q. What should be done if piston ^/ does not 
respond readily to redtictions and seems to stick f 

A. The piston should be removed and cleaned ; but 
never remove the packing ring 48, as it may be sprung 
or broken. 

Get the ring to work free by using kerosene oil to 
clean it. 

Q. How would you apply the brakes if the pre- 
liminary exhaust port were closed and no redicction 
could be made in service position ? 

A. Go carefully toward the emergency position. It 
might be done by lapping the valve and unscrewing the 
nut a little that connects the pipe leading to. the little 
drum to the brake valve. 



OPERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE 
D 8 VAIvVE. 




.TO GOVERNOR 

1 >TRAIN PIPE 

PRESSURE 



j26 

Fig. 17.— D 8 Brake Vai,vk. 

Q, Which valve is most tised, the F 6 or the 
D 8? 

A. The V 6, but the D 8 is also used to quite an 
extento 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Vai.ve. 107 

Q. Hozv do the two valves compare with each 
otJicr in the general principle of operation ? 

A. They are alike in principle, but the same results 
are reached by differently constructed valves. 

Q. Do they have the saine positions ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Is there any difference in the pipe connec- 
tions of the two valves^ 

A. Yes, with the F 6 valve the pipe carrying air to 
the pump governor is connected to main reservoir press- 
ure, while with the D 8 valve it is connected to the 
train line. This will be seen by comparing the cuts of 
the two valves. 

Q. Explain the ftdl release position of the D 8 

valve. 

A. With the handle 8 of the valve (Fig. 17) in full 
release position, the air coming from the main reservoir 
enters the engineer's valve at X, passes on top of the 
rotary, through port a of the rotary 13, port h of the 
rotary seat and into cavity c of the rotary, thence through 
port I and into the train line at Y. 

Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) leads to chamber B 
and is exposed to cavity c of the rotary in this position 
of the valve so that air passing from the main reservoir 
into the train line through cavity c is also free to go to 
the little drum through port g. 

In this position Fig. 18 shows porty open to port e, 
and main reservoir pressure passes directly to the little 
drum through these ports. 

Q. Hozv many ports lead to the little drum in 
fttll release ? 

A. Two ; the same as with the F 6 valve. 



io8 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. How ma7ty to the train line ? 

A. One large one, as with the F 6 valve. 

Q. In fttll release _ the main reservoir, train 
line, and little drum are connected. Hoiv mnch 
pressure will we get 07t each if the ptimp is started 
with the valve in this position? 

A Seventy pounds. 

O. Why seventy ? 

A. Because with this valve, the train-line pressure 
governs the pump, and the train line usually carries 
seventy pounds. 

Q. Do we still have a connection betzveen the 
main reservoir and train line when the handle is 
moved to i^unning position ? 

A. No, not a direct connection as in full release. 

Q. Do zue have a connection between the traiii 
line and little dritm ? 
A. Yes. 
O, Explain the run7iing position of this valve. 

A. In this position port j (Fig. i8) is moved around 
directly over port / in the rotary seat. The main 
reservoir pressure coming from the top of the rotary 
feeds through ports j and / and strikes the valve 21, 
which is held to its seat by the excess pressure spring 
20. This spring has a tension of twenty pounds so that 
when the main reservoir pressure is twenty pounds 
greater than that back of the valve, or train-line pressure, 
the valve is forced from its seat and the air coming from 
the main reservoir passes through port/ (Fig. 19) into port 
I and into the train line at Y. At the same time it feeds 
into the train line through port /, it feeds up under 
the rotary into cavity c which, as in full release, is ex- 
posed to port I. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) is still 



Op:ERAtion and Description of the D 8 Valve. 109 

exposed to cavity r, and as air passes into tKe train line 
it also passes up into cavity c and through port g (See 
Figs. 17 and 19) into cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. IViik this valve in rujinzn<^ position, hoz^> 
much prcss2Lre do we gel on the main i^escrvoir aiid 
train lijie? 

A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and seventy 
on the train line. 

Q. What stops the pnnip zuhen we have the 
ninety and seventy pounds ? 

A. The pump governor, which is actuated by train- 
line pressure. (See 16, Fig. 17.) 

O. What gives its the excess pi^essni^e of tzuenty 
pounds in the main 7^eservoir ? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20. 

Q. Moving the valve to lap, what is done? 

A. All ports are blanked. 

O. What shuts the little drum off from the 
train-line pressure on lap? 

A. A lug on the inside of the rotary rim covers port 
g (Fig. iq) in this position. 

(9. Where is air drawn from in sei^vice posi- 
tion ? 

A. From cavity D, or the little drum. 

Q. Explain this position. 

A. In this position, the slot i) on the under side of 
the rotary (Fig. 20) connects port e, which leads through 
the rotary seat to the little drum, with port h in the 
rotary seat (Figs. 18 and 19) leading to the atmosphere. 




^—20 



Fig. i8.— D 8 Brake Vai^ve. 



Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve, hi 




TO QUAGE 

N PIPE PRSBSURe 



Fig. 19.— D 8 Brake Vai^ve. 



Q. How does the i^eduction of little drtnn p^^ess- 
ure affect the equalizing piston // ? 

A. The same as with the F 6 valve. 



112 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Is there any difference between the emergency 
position of this and the F 6 valve f 
A. No. 

Q. What is the object of the small slot in the 
rotary seat {Fig. ig) leading from port e, which 
leads to cavity Z), towards port f? 

A. This port comes into use wlien moving tlie rotary 
into full release position. It is to allow m.ain reservoir 




Fig. 20.— Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Vai^ve. 

pressure to reacli cavity D on top of the equalizing pis- 
ton through port 7 a trifle sooner than it reaches the 
train-line pressure underneath the piston 17. Just as 
soon as the rotary is moved past running position toward 
full release, port j in the rotary is connected with the 
slot in the rotary seat leading to port e, thus allowing 
main reservoir pressure to reach the top of piston 17 a 
trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure 
underneath the piston. 



B 



Plate B. 
the nine and one-half inch improved air pump. 







Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 113 

Q. What luould happen if the air from the 
main reservoir reached the U7ider side of the piston 
ly {Fig. 18) first f 

A. The piston would be forced from its seat, espe- 
cially on a short train, and there would be an unneces- 
sary waste of air before the piston would seat. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
D 8 VALVE. 

Q. Why is the equalizing piston // raised nearly 
every time the handle is throzvn to full release, on 
an engine alone, while if the engine is coupled to a 
train of four or more cars this does not happen f 

A. In full release two small ports charge tlie little 
drum and one large one charges the train line. On an 
engine alone the volume of air in the train line and the 
little drum are so nearly equal that charging the train 
line so much faster through a large port than the little 
drum is charged through two small ones makes the press- 
ure greater underneath piston 17 than that above it. 
The piston is consequently forced from its seat and 
enough train- line pressure is lost through the train-line 
exhaust to allow little drum pressure to force piston 17 
to its seat. 

Q. Does this happen with both valves f 
A. Yes. 

Q. Why does this not happen when the engine 
is coupled to some air cars ? 

A. Because in this case the large port used to charge 
the train line in full release has a large space to supply 
with air, and the little drum is charged faster than the 
train line. 

Q. Which hand should start first if the pump 
is started with the valve in full release position ? 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 3 Valve. 115 

A. They should start together and stop at seventy 
pounds. 

Q. Which hand should stai^t first in running 
position ? 

A. The red should go up twenty pounds before the 
black hand moves. They should then proceed twenty 
pounds apart and stop when ninety pounds is registered 
by the red hand and seventy by the black. 

Q. What is the trouble if both hands start and 
re7nai7i together with the valve in running position f 

A. The rotary leaks or there is dirt on the excess 
pressure valve 21 (Fig. 18). 

Q. How do zve tell which it is f 

A. Try the rotary on lap as described with the F 6 
valve, to see if it leaks. If it is tight the trouble is with 
the excess pressure valve. The trouble will be found 
to be dirt on the seat of the excess pressure valve nine- 
teen times out of twenty. 

Q, How call you remove the excess pressure valve 
when everything is charged? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under the engineer's valve, 
place the rotary on service position and remove the cap 
nut 19. 

Q. After zue remove the excess pressure valve, 
clean it and the chamber in which it works, what 
should be done ? 

A. The rotary should be placed in running position 
to blow out any loose dirt or scale before replacing the 
valve. 

Q. What causes this g2 cm to collect here? 
A. The too free use of oil or a poor kind on the air 
end of the pump. 



ii6 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. If the red hand stands at eighty and the 
black ha7td at seventy when the pump stops and the 
rotary is i7i r^tn7^ing position^ what is wrong? 

A. The excess pressure spring 20 (Fig. 18) is weak. 

Q. What if the red stands at one hundred and 
the black at seventy ? 

A. The excess pressure spring is too stiff. 

Q. What if the red stands at eighty and the 
black at sixty, or the red at one htindred and the 
black at eighty ? 

A. The pump governor needs adjusting. 

Q. What is the tro^tble if no air will pass into 
the train line with the valve in r tinning position ? 

A. The excess pressure valve is stuck to its seat. 

Q. What has to be done f 

A. The handle of the valve has to be run in full re- 
lease until the excess pressure valve chamber can be 
cleaned. 

Q, How much pressure will we get on the main 
reservoir a7td how m^uch on the train line if the 
pump is started with the valve 07i lap f 

A. No pressure in the train line, and boiler pressure 
in the main reservoir. 

Q. Why boiler pressure in the main reservoir f 

A. Because the pump continues to work as long as 
the steam is strong enough to compress the air higher, 
there being no air in the train line to work the governor 
and stop the pump. 

Q. Does the main reservoir pressure run up 
this way when the brakes are applied and the valve 
is on lap f 

A. Yes. 



Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 8 Valve. 117 

Q. Hozu 2S this overcome ? 

A. The engineer watches the gauge and partially 
closes the pump throttle, or, on some roads, two governors 
are used, one connected to the main reservoir pressure 
and the other, as in the cut (Fig. 19), with the train line, 

Q. What is likely to happen if this high press- 
tire gets into the train line ? 

A. The wheels are likely to be slid and the hose burst. 

Q. If the rotary or excess pressure valves leak 
with the D 8 valve, how will the pump work ? 

A. After stopping, the pump will not start working 
again until both train-line and main reservoir pressures 
have leaked below seventy pounds or that at which the 
governor is set. 

Q. Why is it that with the valve midzuay be- 
tween the service and f till emergeiicy positions the 
black hand shows main reservoir pressure, when we 
know by the position of the valve that there is 7io air 
in the train line ? 

A. This is a peculiarity of the valve. In this posi- 
tion port j of the rotary stands over port g of the rotary 
seat that leads to the little drum. In this case the press- 
ure represented is what is in the little drum but not in 
the train line, as the train line is connected to the at- 
mosphere by a large port. 

Q. Are the troubles with the equalizing piston 
described in the explanation of the F 6 valve ap- 
plicable to the equalizing piston of the D 8 valve ? 

A. Yes. 



A COMPARISON OF THE F 6 AND D 8 
BRAKE VALVES. 

Q. How much pressure do we get in the main 
reservoir, train line and little drum with the F 6 
and D 8 brake valves, if the pump is started with 
the valves in full release aitd left there until it 
stops ? 

A. Ninety pounds in each with the F 6 valve, and 
seventy in each with the D 8 valve. 

Q. How do the hands on the gauge go up with 
the F 6 and D 8 valves, if the pumps are started 
with the valves iii rtiitning position f 

A. With the F 6 valve both hands go together to 
seventy pounds, when the black hand stops, and the 
red hand continues until ninety pounds is reached in the 
main reservoir. 

With the D 8 valve the red hand goes up twenty 
pounds before the black moves. They continue to rise 
twenty pounds apart and stop with ninety on the red 
and seventy pounds on the black hand. 

Q. Why is a leak on the train line m^ore likely 
to creep the brakes on with the D 8 than with the 
F 6 valve, with the valves in running position ? 

A. Because in this position air will feed into the 
train line if the pressure there is less than seventy 
pounds with the F 6 valve, while with the D 8 no air 
will feed into the train line unless there is twenty 



A Comparison of the F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves. 119 

pounds more pressure in the main reservoir than in the 
train line. 

Q. What is the difference between the two valves 
in the stopping of the pump ? 

A. With the F 6 valve, the pump stops when the 
desired pressure is compressed into the main reservoir, 
regardless of the pressure in the train line, while with 
the D 8 valve it is exactly the reverse. 

Q. Hozv much pressure will we get on the main 
reservoir and trai7i line with these valves, if the 
ptcmp is started with the valves 07i lap f 

A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and nothing 
on the train line with the F 6 valve ; boiler pressure on 
the main reservoir and nothing on the train line with 
the D 8 valve. 



WESTINGHOUSE PUMPS. 

Q. What three sizes of pumps are there? 

A. The 6, 8, and gj-incli pumps. 

Q. Is the 6-inch ptimp still in use ? 

A. Yes, but very few are ever seen. 

Q. What is the use of the pump in the air-brake 
system ? 

A. To compress the air used in applying and re- 
leasing the brakes. 

Q. Which pump is gradually becoming the 
standard, and why f 

A. The 9J-inch pump, because the number of air 
cars n6w used in trains requires a pump of greater 
capacity to insure recharging the train more quickly in 
descending grades. 

Q. How is dry steam obtained for the pmnp f 
A. A pipe is screwed into the dome near its top and 
a pump throttle conveniently located in the pipe, or a 
dry pipe is run from the top of the dome back through 
the boiler and coupled to a pump throttle screwed into 
the top of the boiler inside of the cab. 

Q. What would happen if this dry pipe leaked 
inside the boiler ? 

A. Water would work into the pump and wash out 
the oil; causing the pump to groan and cut. 



9i-lNCH Pump. 121 

Q. What is placed betzueen the pump throttle 
a7id the p2inip ? 

A. The lubricator and pump governor. 

Q. Hozu ai^e they located? 

A. The pump governor next to the pump, and the 
lubricator between the governor and pump throttle. 

Q. What zvould happen if the lubincator zvere 
placed next the pnmp f 

A. When the pump governor shut oflf the steam, 
with the lubricator ordinarily used, the steam between 
the lubricator and pump governor condensing would 
form a vacuum that would draw all the oil from the 
lubricator, and there would be a great waste of oil. 

Q. What is the capacity of a gy2-inch pump in 
good condition ? 

A= With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, a gj-inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in thirty- eight seconds in a reservoir 
26 J X 34 inches, and from twenty to seventy pounds in 
twenty-seven seconds. 

Q. What is the capacity of an 8-inch pump in 
good condition f 

Ao With one hundred and forty pounds of steam 
pressure, the 8-inch pump will compress air from zero 
to seventy pounds in a main reservoir 26 J x 34 inches 
long (outside measurement) in sixty-eight seconds, and 
from twenty to seventy pounds in fifty seconds. The 
reservoir contains about 8| cubic feet, 

9J-INCH Pump. 

Q. What is the office of the parts in the top 
head of the gY^-inch pump \Plate B) ? 



122 Air-Be AKK Catechism. 

A. They with the reversing rod 71 form the valve 
motion of the pump. 

Q. What is Fig. 3 {Plate B) ? 

A. It is a cut of the bushing inside of which the 
slide valve 83 moves when actuated by the movement of 
the pistons "]"] and 79, because fastened to their connect- 
ing stemo 

Q. What are ports b, d, and c' {Fig. j, Plate B) f 

A. They correspond exactly to the ports in the valve 
seat of a locomotive. 

In Fig. I (Plate B) we see that h leads to the bottom of 
the steam cylinder, d to the top, and d leads to the 
exhaust pipe at F. 

Q. Of what use is port t {Fig. j, Plate E) ? 

A= It is a port by means of which chamber E at the 
left of the small piston 79 is connected with the atmos- 
phere through port d. 

Q. If this port were not there ^ would the pump 
reverse ? 

A. No ; when the main valve pistons "]"] and 79 
moved to the left, a back pressure would be formed in 
chamber E that would stop the reversing movement of 
the pistons "]"] and 79 and stop the pump. 

Q. Explaiit the passage of steam after it enters 
the pump at X, and its effect. 

A. Steam coming from the boiler through the pump 
governor enters the pump at X, thence passes through 
ports a, a' and a' (Figs, i and 2, Plate B), into 
chamber A between the main valve pistons. The area 
of piston ^'] being so much greater than that of 79, the 
steam moves these pistons to the right, carrying the slide 
valve 83 (Figs, i and 2) with them to the position shown 



9J-INCH Pump. 123 

in Fig. lo Steam in cliamber A is now free to pass 
through ports b^ U and If underneath the main piston 65. 

Q. What zuotdd become of any steam above 
piston 6^? 

A. Any steam above this piston is free to pass to the 
atmosphere through ports c^ c\ the exhaust cavity B of 
the slide valve, d, d\ (F^ and through the exhaust pipe 
from Y. 

Q. How is the pum^p reversed? 

A. The main piston 65 is now being forced up by 
the steam pressure, and just before it reaches the top of 
its stroke the reversing plate 69 strikes the lug / on the 
reversing rod 71, lifting the rod. As this rod is lifted 
the reversing slide valve 72 (Fig. 2) is carried up with it, 
and the pump is reversed. 

O. What is the duty of the reversing slide valve 
72 {Fig. 2)? 

A. The duty of this valve is to admit and exhaust 
steam from chamber D (Fig. i) between the piston 77 
and head 84, and, as now shown, it exhausts steam from 
cavity D through ports h and li' (Figs. 3 and 2), port H 
of the reversing slide valve, and through ports/, /, (i, 
d\ d% and out at F. 

Q. How does raising the reversing slide valve 
reverse the motion of the pitmp f 

A. As the reversing valve is lifted by the rod 7~i, 
port g in the bushing (Figs. 2 and 3) is exposed to the 
steam pressure which is always in chamber C, which is 
in constant communication with chamber A by means of 
ports e and e' (Fig. 2). 

When valve 72 is raised, steam passes through port g 
(Figs. 2 and 3) into cavity J). We now have equal 
steam pressure on both sides of piston '-j^^ and it is 
balanced ; but the pressure acting on the right of piston 



124 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

79 moves the pistons and tlie slide valve to the left, 
connecting the steam pressure in chamber A with the 
top of piston 65 through ports c' and c, and the under 
side of piston 65 is connected with the atmosphere 
through ports b\ b' ^ h, cavity B of the slide valve 83, d, 
d\ d% and out at F, 

Q, The piston 6^ is now on its down stroke ; 
what brings the stroke to the point from which we 
started ? 

A. The reversing plate 69 strikes the button at the 
bottom of the reversing rod 71 and pulls the reversing 
slide valve 72 down to its position as shown in Fig. 2. 
We have now completed one entire stroke of the pump. 

Q. Which are the receiving valves f 

A. Those marked 86 at the left of Fig. i. 

Q. Which are the discharge valves ? 

A. Those marked 86 at the right of the pump. 

Q. Describe the action of the air end of the 
pump. 

A. As piston 66 is raised, the air above the piston is 
compressed and a vacuum would be formed underneath 
if air from the atmosphere did not enter through the 
lower receiving valve 86. 

The ports are so arranged that the pressure above the 
piston will strike the receiving valve from above, forcing 
it to its seat, and the discharge valve underneath, forcing 
it from its seat, allowing the compressed air to pass down 
and out into the main reservoir at Z. 

The suction underneath the piston allows atmospheric 
pressure entering at W to force the lower receiving valve 
from its seat and fill the cylinder underneath the piston 
with air. The lower discharge valve 86 is held to its 
seat by main reservoir pressure. When the pump is 



9i-lNCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care= 125 

reversed, the opposite valves from those just described 
are affected in the same way. 

Q. Of what use is the port in the cap /^ ij^'^g- 
2, Plate B) zuhich leads to the top of the stem yi ? 

A. This port is connected with the top end of the 
steam cylinder. Were it not for this port there would 
be a back pressure on top of stem 71 which would not 
allow the reversing slide valve to be raised to reverse the 
pump. This port is connected with the atmosphere 
through the top end of the steam cylinder, as shown in 
Fig. 2 , each time this end of the cylinder is connected 
with the atmosphere. 



9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 

Q. What should be done in packing the pump f 

A. It should be packed loosely and the gland nuts 
96 screwed up only sufficient to prevent a blow. Do 
not use a wrench if no blow exists when the gland is 
screwed up by hand. 

Q. Should asbestos or anything containing mtich 
rtibber be ttsed in packing a pump f 

A. No ; asbestos hardens and is hard to remove, and 
rubber is likely to wear the stem too much. 

Q. How often shotdd the air end of the pump be 
oihd? 

A. If a pump groans occasionally, it should be 
oiled just often enough so that no groan will occur. If 
a pump never groans, it is not necessary to oil it more 
than once a month. 

Q. Some pumps have been run without ever 



126 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

oiling the air end; how did the lower cylinder receive 
its lubrication f 

A. From the swab which should always be placed on 
the piston rod, and from the oily condensation that 
follows down the rod. 

Q. What kind of oil shoitld be used in the air 
end of the pump ? 

A. A good quality of West Virginia oil gives the 
best results. If other oils are used, it must be those 
that do not gum. 

Q. What care should be taken in starting a 
pttmp f 

A. It should be started slowly so as to get a pressure 
of twenty or thirty pounds for the air piston to cushion 
upon, and the condensed steam should be gotten rid of 
before the pump attains any speed. Get the lubricator 
at work as soon as the pump is started. 

Q. Does any harm res7ilt from oiling the air 
end of the pump through the suction ? 

A. Yes ; the suction holes are stopped up, the air 
valves gummed, and a generally dirty and ineffective 
pump results. 

Q. What trouble will cause the pump to blow ? 

A. Packing rings in the main steam and reversing 
pistons leaking, slide valve 83, or a leaky reversing 
slide valve 72 are the main troubles. 

Q. What will cause a pump to pound f 

A. It will pound if it is not fastened firmly, if the 
air valves are stuck, or if there is too great a lift of air 
valves. Sometimes it will pound if the reversing plate is 
worn too much to reverse the pump quickly enough, or 
if the nuts on the pistons are loose. 



9J-InchPump — Pecuuarities, Troubles, Care. 127 

Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge 
valve were sticck open ? 

A. Main reservoir pressure would always be on top 
of the air piston ; this would cause a slow up-stroke and 
a quick down-stroke of the pump. No air would be 
drawn into the pump on the down-stroke. If the oil 
cock were opened on the pump, there would be a constant 
blow at that point as long as there was any pressure in 
the main reservoir, and no oil could be put into the air 
cylinder, as it would be blown out by the escaping air. 

Q. What woidd be the effect if the bottom dis- 
charge valve were stuck open ? 

A. The same effect as above described, only on the 
opposite stroke of the pump. In this case the oil cock 
would not tell us anything. 

Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge 
valve were stuck shtit ? 

A. The pump would have a slow up-stroke, and 
unless the valve were forced from its seat, would stop or 
go slow enough to allow the pressure above the air 
piston to leak by the packing rings when the air press- 
ure above the piston became as high as the steam 
pressure. 

Q. What would be the effect if the bottom dis- 
charge valve were stuck shut ? 

A. The same effect as just described, but on the 
opposite stroke. 

Q. What effect would follow if the top receiv- 
ing valve were stuck open ? 

A. Air would be drawn into the pump on the down- 
stroke and blown back to the atmosphere on the up- 
stroke. By placing the hand on the air inlet and 



128 Air-Brakb Catechism. 

watching tlie piston this trouble may be easily located. 
The pump would have a tendency to work faster on 
the up-stroke. 

Q. What effect would follow if the bottom 
receiving valve were stuck open ? 

A. The same as just described, but on the opposite 
stroke. 

Q. What would be the effect were the top re- 
ceiving valve stuck shut ? 

A. No air would be drawn into the pump on its 
down-stroke, and a partial vacuum being formed above 
the piston would cause the pump to have a slower 
down- stroke, as the vacuum would be working against 
the steam, and a faster up-stroke, as the vacuum would 
be working with the steam. 

Q. What would be the effect if the bottom 
receiving valve were stuck to its seat ? 

A. The same as with the top receiving valve stuck 
shut, but on the opposite stroke. 

Q, How may a stuck valve usually be loosened? 
A. By tapping the valve cage lightly. 

Q. How will a pump work with dirt on the 
seat of a discharge valve ? 

A. The same as with a stuck receiving valve. The 
dirt on the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed 
back into the pump and aid the steam on half the stroke, 
causing one stroke to be quick, and work against the 
steam on the other stroke, causing the pump to work 
slow. 

Q. How could we tell that a receiving valve 
was stuck shttt, 01'' a dischai^ge valve open, besides by 
the erratic action of the pump ? 



9J-InchPump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 129 

A. The hand placed on the strainer would feel no 
air drawn in on one-half of the stroke. 

Q. How can we tell if the top discharge valve 
has a poor seat f 

A. Open the cock 98 (Fig. i, Plate B) and air will 
issue thence constantly if the dirt on the seat of the 
valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into 
the cylinder. 

Q. What caused some of the first ()y2-inch 
pumps to stop ? 

A. The port g (Fig. 3, Plate B) did not extend quite 
far enough, and the wear of piston 77 (Fig. i, Plate B) 
would sometimes allow it to travel far enough to close 
port g entirely, and the pump could not be reversed. 

Q. How may a pump often be started if it 
stops f 

A. By jarring lightly on the top head. 

Q. At what speed are good restUts obtained 
from a pump ? 

A. At about forty-five or fifty strokes a minute on a 
level, but in handling air trains on a grade this speed 
should be increased. 

Q. Why is it best not to rtin a pump too slow f 

A. A pump running too slow will allow the air that 
is being compressed to leak by the packing rings 67 
(Fig. 2, Plate B), and air will not be drawn in at the 
other end of the cylinder as it should. 

With sixty strokes to the minute, a pump will make 
more air than with the same number of strokes spread 
over three minutes. In the latter case the compressed 
air has too much time to leak by the air piston-packing 
rings. 



130 Air-Brake Catkchism. 

Q, How can we tell if the packing rings in a. 
pump are loose ? 

A. Have tlie pump working at fair speed and put 
the hand on the air inlet to see if the air is drawn in full 
stroke. Try this on both strokes, and if air is drawn in 
only during a part of each stroke, the rings are loose. 

Q. What lift should the receiving and discharge 
valves have ? 

A. -i^ of an inch. 

Q. What will cause a pump to heat ? 

A. Too small lift of air valves, racing a pump, loose 
air piston-packing rings, using a small main reservoir 
on long trains, packing the piston rod too tight, or 
using so much oil on the air end of the pump that the 
pipe leading from the pump to the main reservoir is 
partly closed by the oil being baked to it. The pipe 
gradually becomes so small, that the friction caused by 
the air being forced through it causes the air to heat. 
This heat spreads to the pump. 

Q. What should be done to cool a hot pump ? 
A. Ease up on the speed if running fast, remove cap 
74, and pour a small amount of good oil into the pump. 

Q. If the packing burns out of a pum.p, can it 
still compress air f 

A. Yes ; the lower half of the air cylinder will not 
be affected. 

Q. Does compressing air cause it to heat ? 

A. Yes; the higher the pressure the greater the 
degree of heat, because of the friction due to forcing the 
air particles closer together. 

Q* What is likely to be the trouble if a pump 
dances f 



9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 131 

A. A leak on the seat of the reversing slide valve or 
a bent reversing stem ; also a burr being worn on the 
reversing plate, thus allowing the button on the stem 
to catch. 

Q, How should a pump be located? 

A. It should be where the engineer will notice it if 
it stops. Under no consideration should it be located 
lower than the main reservoir, as dirt and water would 
stay in the pump. 

Q. How may a pump be cleaned f 

A. By allowing a solution of lye in hot water to 
work through the pump. The pump should be worked 
slowly and the water caught in a pail before it enters the 
main reservoir. Run the solution through several 
times ; then run clean hot water through to wash out the 
lye, or it will eat the leather gaskets throughout the 
brake system. 

Q. Where does the exhaust pipe connected to the 
pump at Y lead ? 

A. Usually to the smoke box in the engine, but this 
practice is gradually giving way to the better one of 
running the exhaust pipe into the exhaust passage from 
the main cylinder to the stack. This latter method 
almost does away with the draught on the fire caused by 
the pump exhaust thus saving fuel, and the pump makes 
very little noise in working. Some engines are piped 
to carry the pump exhaust up over the cab', but this is 
awkward, noisy, and keeps the cab dirty. 

Q. What effect would be produced if the gasket 
under the top head leaked? 

A. If the leak were between the two ports, one 
leading to the top and the other to the bottom of the 
main piston, the pump would stop. 



132 



Air-Brakb Catkchism. 



60° 


90 


177° 


212 


255° 

317° 
369° 

416° 


294' 
362^ 

417^ 
465' 


455° 


507' 


490° 
524° 


545' 
580^ 



The accompanying table shows heat due to compres- 
sion. This heat depends upon the initial temperature. 
The rise in temperature is due to the heat of compres- 
sion. 

Temperature of air before compression 

compressed to 15 lbs. 
30 
45 
60 

75 

90 
105 
120 

8-Inch Pump. 

Q. State the principal diffei^ence, aside from that 
of size, between the 8 and the g\-inch pumps. 

A. It is in the valve motion ; that of the 9J-inch 
pump is simpler, easier to get at for repair, and less 
likely to get out of order. 

Piston 23 (Fig. 21), called the reversing piston, is not 
found in the 9J-inch pump (Plate B). 

Q. Are the air ends of the pumps alike ? 

A. In principle, yes ; but the location of the air 
valves and their size are somewhat different, although 
the operation is the same. 

Q. What lift do the air valves of the 8-inch 
pump have? 

A. The receiving should have \ and the discharge 
y\-inch lift. 

Q. As the steam enters the pump at X {Fig. 21), 
where is it free to pass f 

A. Into chamber m and also through port h into a 
port not shown which leads to cavity e, the reversing 
slide-valve chamber. 



BOILER,, !>'''' ^ 

54lLj 




52 52 AiR iNLET 

Fig. 21.— 8-Inch Pump. 



134 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q, Does this chamber always contain the same 
pressure as chamber m ? 
A. Always. 

Q. The pistons 7 {Fig- 21) are of uneqiial size, 
and the upper piston 7 and piston 2j are the same 
size. What happens when steam enters chambers 
m and e with the reversing slide valve in its pres- 
ent position ? 

A. Steam is admitted through port a on top of piston 
23 ; this pressure balances the upward pressure on the 
top piston 7, and the pressure acting down on the small 
piston 7 causes all three pistons to travel down to the 
positions shown in the cut. 

Q. Explain the passage of steam with the valve 
motion in this position. 

A. Steam passes through small ports in bushing 
26 (Fig. 21), just above the small piston 7, underneath 
piston 10, forcing it up. At the same time the top end 
of the steam cylinder is connected with the atmosphere 
through the upper ports of bushing 25, the port /, as 
shown by the dotted lines, down through g and out at Y. 

Q. When the piston moves up so that the re- 
versing plate 18 strikes the lug n, the reversing 
slide valve 16 is forced up. What is done by rais- 
ing this valve ? 

A. The exhaust port in the slide valve connects 
port h leading to chamber d with port c which leads into 
the exhaust port /, and we have no pressure left on top 
of piston 23. 

Q. With no pressure acting down on piston 2^ 
{Fig. 21)^ what happens? 

A. On account of the greater area of the upper 
piston 7, both pistons 7 are raised. 



8-Inch Pump. 135 

Q. Explain the passage of steam with pisto7is y 
moved tip. 

A. Steam from chamber m now passes through the 
lower ports of bushing 25 on top of the main piston 10, 
forcing it down, and the steam on the under side of 
piston 10 passes out of the lower holes of bushing 26 
into port/', and out through the exhaust port F. 

Q. When piston 10 reaches the bottom of its 
stroke, how is the pump reversed? - 

A. The reversing plate 18 strikes the button at the 
end of the reversing stem 17 and moves the reversing 
slide valve 16 down to the position as shown in the cut. 

Q. What will cause blows in this pump f 
A. Loose packing rings in the main steam piston 10, 
piston 23, or pistons 7, a bad seat on the reversing slide 
valve, or the top of stem 17 being a loose fit in the cap 
nut 20 (Fig. 21). 

Q. What are the other troubles of the pum^p ? 

A. They are in principle so nearly allied to those of 
the 9J-inch pump that a study of them would be prac- 
tically a review of the work discussed in the study of 
that pump. In all cases of pump trouble, if one keeps 
in mind the principle of the operation of the pump, a 
little thought will sufiice to locate the defects. 



THE SWEENEY COMPRESSOR. 

Q. What is the object of the Sweeney device? 
A. To recharge a main reservoir quickly in descend- 
ing very heavy grades when the air pressure is low. 

Q. Explain the parts. 

A. It consists of a pipe running from the steam 
chest to the main reservoir. In the pipe there is a cut- 
out cock, a safety valve, and a non-return check. 

Q. How is it operated f 

A. By turning the cut-out cock and reversing the 
engine when steam is shut off. The main cylinders 
and pistons act as compressors, and compressed air is 
forced into the steam chest and thence through the pipe 
connection to the main reservoir. 

Q. What is the objection to this device? 
"A. It is extremely handy in case of emergency, such as 
low pressure or the refusal of a pump to work. The 
objection to it is, that smoke, gas, and heat forced into 
the main reservoir burn out gaskets and get the brake 
system very dirty. 



WBSTINGHOUSK PUMP GOVERNORS. 

The accompanying pump governor cuts represent the 
new and the old style of governors. 

Q. Explain the duty of spring ^i {Fig. 22), 
A. The tension of the spring 41 is regulated by the 
cap nut 40 and holds down the piston 43, which in 
turn holds the small pin valve on its seat. 

The fitting 45 is connected to main reservoir pressure 
if used with the F 6 brake valve, and with the train 
line if used with the D 8 brake valve. When the pressure 
entering at 45 and acting oh the under side of the piston 
43 is greater than the tension of the spring 41, the 
piston is forced up, thus lifting the pin valve, to which 
arrow 42 points, from its seat. 

Q. What effect does unseating this pin valve 
have ? 

A. It allows air pressure to reach the top of piston 
28 (Fig. 22), forcing it down and closing valve 26. 

Q. What effect does closing valve 26 have ? 

A. It shuts off the steam supply and stops the 
pump. 

Q. At the same time that air forces piston 28 
down, where else does it go and with what effect f 

A. It passes out of the small relief port, at which the 
arrow 37 points, to the atmosphere. This leakage is 
sufficient to keep the pump working slowly, so that 
steam will not condense and be thrown out of the stack 
when the pump starts again. 



138 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



Q. What is effected by any reduction of the main 
reservoir pressure ? 




TO MATr«. BESERVOTR 
CONNECTION 26 ON 
EN'GlNEE.RiS BR^KE 
VAQVE' 



Fig. 22.— Improved Pump Governor. 



Westinghouse Pump Governors. 139 

A. Any reduction of main reservoir pressure allows 
the spring 41 to force the pin valve to its seat, and what 
air still remains on top of piston 28 escapes through the 
relief port 37, and, with no pressure on top of piston 28, 
the spring 31 raises the piston 28 and valve 26, allowing 
steam from the boiler to reach the pump. 

Q. Of what use is the spring under the head 
of the pin valve? 

A. To hold the valve up when piston 43 is raised. 
Were it not for the spring, the pin valve would remain 
seated. 

Q. If any air should leak by piston 28, or any 
stea7n should leak by the stem of the valve 26 into 
the cavity tinder piston 28, how would it escape ? 

K. There is a port in the casing 32 connected to a 
drip pipe which leads to the atmosphere. 

Q. What effect wotdd be noticed if this drip 
pipe became clogged with dirt or were frozen shut^ 
when there was a leakage of steam tip under the 
governor piston f 

A. Piston 28 could not be forced down, and the pump 
would not stop working until the main reservoir pressure 
was about equal to boiler pressure. 

Q. What wotdd be the effect if the release port 
jy {Fig. 22) were closed by dirt f 

A. The pump would be very slow in starting to 
work after once stopping. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Because, when the pin valve closed, the cavity 
above piston 28 would be filled with main reservoir 
pressure, which could escape only by leaking by the 
packing ring 29 and out to the atmosphere through 
the drip pipe. 



140 . Air-Brakb Catechism. 

Q. What effect would dirt on the seat of the 
pin valve have ? 

A. It would make a constant blow out of tlie relief 
port, and if air could leak in faster than it could get 
out of the relief port, the pump would either stop or 
work very slowly, even if the pump throttle were wide 
open. 

Q. Why would it work slowly f 

A. Because the pressure on piston 28 may force the 
valve 26 partly shut and allow only a small amount of 
steam to reach the pump. If the leak were bad enough^ 
the pump would be stopped entirely. 

Q. What effect would be noticed if the pin valve 
became gummed so that it would not seat centrally ? 

A. Air would pass down on piston 28, and the 
action of the pump would be the same as just described, 
with dirt on the seat of this valve. 

Q. What would be the effect if the casing in 
which the governor piston works should become 
badly worn, and a woi^n ring 2 g were replaced with 
a new one without truing the casing ? 

A. When piston 28 was forced down a little farther 
than usual, it might stick, causing the pump to stop. 
A jar on the governor might start the pump. 

Q. What is the difference between the improved 
f and the i -inch governors f 

A. Their operation is identical, but there is a dif- 
ference in size, as one is used with the 8 and the other 
with the 9|-inch pump. 

Q. Explain the operation of the old ptimp 
governor. 

A. It is the same as that of the improved governor, 
excepting that, after the pin valve is closed, the air in 



Westinghouse Pump Governors. 



141 



tlie cliamber above the piston, instead of escaping to the 
atmosphere through a relief port, passes by the packing- 
ring 24 and out to the atmosphere through a drip pipe 
connected to the port, shown by the dotted lines in the 
chamber under the piston. 




Fig. 23.— O1.D StyIvE Pump Governor. 

Q. Are the troubles about the same with the 
two governors ? 

A. Yes; but there was much trouble with the 



142 Air- Brake Catechism. 

diaphragm 19 of the old governor which is unknown 
with the new. 

Q. Why was this f 

A. Because this governor was used chiefly with the 
D 8 valve, and train-line pressure operated the governor. 
With this valve on lap, boiler pressure would be com- 
pressed in the main reservoir, and when this high press- 
ure was thrown into the train line to release brakes, the 
diaphragm 19 would be forced up so high it would 
buckle. 

Q. What effect would this have f 

A. It would destroy the sensitiveness of the gover- 
nor, and the pump would be stopped in a very erratic 
manner. The train-line pressure would somefimes be 
too high and at others too low. 

Q, How was this defect remedied in the im- 
proved governor ? 

A. By inspecting the cut of the new governor it 
will be seen that the diaphragm can raise only a very 
little distance when it seats against a brass ring, thus 
doing away with the chance of its buckling. 

Q. Is the new governor fnore sensitive than the 
old? 

A. Yes, because instead of one diaphragm, like 19 
(Fig. 23) in the old governor, there are two thin dia- 
phragms in the new. 

Q. How m.uch reduction will cause a governor 
of the improved type to start the pump ? 
A. About half a pound. 

Q. Why was the long slot placed in the stem 16 
of the old governor f 

A. The governor used to make a buzzing sound, 
and slotting the stem remedied this trouble. 



Westinghouse Pump Governors. 143 

Q, Does this governor keep the pump working 
slowly after full pressure is obtained? 
A. No, as there is no relief port. 



WESTINGHOUSE WHISTEB SIGNAI.. 



Q. What form of signal was used before the 
compressed air signaling apparatus was invented ? 

A. The old bell rope and gong signal, such as is now 
used on freight trains. 




Fig. 24.— Location of Signal, Apparatus on Kngins. 

Q. Do all roads use the air signal in passenger 
service f 

A. Not all, but most roads do. 

Q. What parts of the sig7taling apparatus are 
found on the engine ? 



Westinghousr Whistle Signal. 145 

A. The reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 30), the whistle 
-valve (Fig. 27), the whistle (Fig. 29), and the pipe con- 
nections as shown in Fig. 24. 

Q. What parts are fcnmd on the car ? 

A. The discharge valve (Fig. 26), the signal cord 
running the length of the car, and the signal-pipe con- 
nections as shown in Fig. 25. 

Q. Where is the discharge valve {Fig. 26) usual- 
ly located ? 

A. As shown in Fig. 25, although it is sometimes 
found inside the car over the door. 

Q. Why is it better placed outside ? 
A. When it is so placed the noise of the discharge 
will not affect nervous people. 

Q. How does the car discharge valve work ? 

A. The signal cord is attached to the valve in the 
liole of 5 (Fig. 26) ; when the cord is pulled, valve 3 is 
forced from its seat, allowing whistle-line pressure to 
escape to the atmosphere. 

Q. What is the trouble when there is a constant 
leak fro7n the discharge valve? 

A. There is dirt on the seat of valve 3 (Fig. 26). 
Q. Where is the signal valve {Fig. 2f) located ? 

A. Under the foot-boards of the cab. Convenience 
determines whether it will be on the fireman's or 
engineer's side. 

Q. Where are the reducing valves {Figs. 28 and 
jo) Visually placed? 

A. It was formerly customary to locate them outside, 
next to the main reservoir, as in Fig. 24, but now good 
practice locates them inside the cab where they cannot 
freeze in winter. 



146 



Air-Brake Catechism. 



Q, Which valve is now being sent out with all 
new equipment? 

A. The valve represented by Fig. 28, as this is the 
latest, although there are still many like Fig. 30 in use. 

Q. What is the duty of these valves ? 
A. To maintain a constant pressure on the whistle 
line. 




Fig. 25. — IvOCATiON of Signai, Apparatus on Coach. 

Q, Explain the action of the reducing valve 
{Fig. 28). 

A. It works exactly like the train-line governor of 
the F 6 valve already explained. 

Q. Of what use is the plug valve in the upper 
left-hand corner f 

A. To cut out main reservoir pressure in case we 
wish to take the reducer apart. 



Westinghouse Whistle Signai,. 



147 



Q. Explain the action of the old reducing valve 
{Fig. 36). 

A. The top spring has a tension determined by the 
pressure to be carried on the whistle line. This spring 
holds piston 6 down as long as the tension of the spring 
is greater than the pressure underneath the rubber 
diaphragm 7. 




Fig. 26.— Car Dischargk Vai^vk. 
As long as the piston is down, valve 5 is held from its 
seat, allowing main reservoir pressure to feed in as 
indicated. It passes by valve 5, up under the piston, 
and into the signal line as indicated, until the pressure 
on the whistle line and underneath the diaphragm 7 is 
greater than the tension of the spring over the piston 
6, when the spring is compressed, allowing piston 6 to 
travel up, and spring 10 raises valve 5 to its seat, 
shutting off the further passage of air from the main 
reservoir to the whistle line. 

Q. Where is the whistle {Fig. 2g) located ? 
A. In the cab, as near the engineer as convenient. 
O. To what is it connected ? 



148 Air- Brake Catechism. 

A. To a pipe which leads from the signal valve as 
indicated (Fig. 27). 

Q. What is its use ? 

A. As the signal or whistle valve (Fig. 27) operates, 
the air leaving this valve escapes through the whistle 
(Fig. 29). The blast signals the engineer. 

Q, Where does the air come from that supplies 
the signal system f 

A. From the main reservoir on the engine. 

Q. Explain the passage of the air from the 
main reservoir through the signal system. 

A. It first passes from the main reservoir (Fig. 24) 
through the reducing valve. After leaving the reducing 
valve there is a tee in the pipe, one branch of which 
leads to the signal valve (Fig. 27) and the other back into 
the train. Under each car (Fig. 25) there is a strainer 
in a tee, and a branch of the whistle line goes to the 
discharge valve (Fig. 26). 

Q. Explain the operatio7t of the signal valve 
{Eig. 2f) in charging, 

A. After the air passes from the main reservoir and 
through the reducing valve, it is free to go back into the 
train and also enter the signal valve at Y. It then 
passes through the contracted port d into cavity A on 
top of the rubber diaphragm 12, and around through 
port c. The lower half of the stem 10 is three sided, so 
that the air can pass up to where the stem looks to be tight 
in the bushing 9. This joint is not tight, but sufficiently 
so to allow the air to feed by into chamber B very 
slowly. The reducing valve is adjusted to forty pounds, 
and if we wait a short time the forty pounds will equal- 
ize on both sides of the diaphragm 12, that is, there 
will be forty pounds in each chamber A and B, as there 
is also throughout the whistle line on the train. 



Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 



149 



Q. What does the conductor do if Jie wishes to 
signal the engineer ? 

A. He pulls the signal cord in the car. 

Q. What is effected by this 9 

K. It makes a sudden reduction of whistle-line press- 
ure through the car discharge valve (Fig. 26). 

Q. What is the effect ? 




>■ TO WHISTLE 

Fig. 27. — SiGNAi. Vai^vk. 

A. This starts a reduction wave throughout the 
whistle line, and in the signal valve it is first felt in 
chamber A, on top of diaphragm 12. The pressure in 
chamber 5, being unable to equalize quickly with that 
in chamber A^ on account of the snug fit of the stem 10 
in bushing 9, is now greater than the pressure in cham- 
ber A. The diaphragm 12 and the stem 10 attached to 
it are lifted, uncovering the port in the bushing 7. The 
stem is lifted sufficiently to allow air from chamber B 
and the air coming through port c to pass out at e and 



I50 



Air-Brakk Catkchism. 



through the pipe to the whistle (Fig. 29), causing a 
blast as long as the stem 10 is off its seat. 

The same wave reduction that started the signal valve 
into operation also opened the reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 
30) to allow main reservoir pressure to supply the whistle 
line. 




-Improved Reducing Vai^ve. 

A wave of increased pressure now takes the place of 
the reduction wave, and air passing into chamber A of 
the signal valve forces the diaphragm 12 down, causing 
the whistle to cease blowing. 

Q. How long must we wait before again trying 
to put the signal valve in operation f 

A. Until the pressures have had time to equalize in 
chambers A and B (Fig. 27). 



Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 151 

Q, How many seconds should we wait f- 
A. Usually two at least, and three is better. 

Q. Give a ride by which we can pull the whistle 
signal cord in the car and gain the best results. 




Fig. 29.— Signai. Whisti^b. 
A. When pulling the cord, make an exhaust of one 
second, and then wait three seconds to allow the whistle 
to cease blowing and the pressures to equalize through- 
out the signal system before making another reduction. 

Q, In pulling the signal cord, what should ai- 
rways be borne in mind ? 

A. That it is not the amount of reduction but the 
suddenness that causes the whistle to blow. 



PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE 
SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

Q. If no air gets into the zv his tie line when an 
engine is coupled to a train^ and we know that the 




TO MAIN RESERVOIR 



Fig. 30.— O1.D STYI.B Reducing Vai,vk. 

cocks in the signal line stand properly and the hose 
are in order, what should we look at first ? 

A. The plug cock in the reducing valve (Fig. 28) ; 



Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 153 

or, if the weather is cold and the reducer is outside, it 
may be frozen. 

Q. What else might cause this trouble zuith the 
new reducer {Fig. 28) ? 

A. It may be that the small taper port in the re- 
ducer (Fig. 28), where the main reservoir pressure enters, 
is plugged shut. 

Q. What will close this port ? 
A. Oil from the air end of the pump and the corro- 
sion from the inside of the pipes. 

Q. What is the trouble if the signal cord is 
pulled in the car and no air issites from the car dis- 
charge valve ? 

A. The cut-out cock (Fig. 25) in the saloon has 
very likely been closed. 

Q. Give conditions that would result in the air 
whistle not responding. 

A. A dirty strainer in the tee under the car where 
the branch pipe to the car discharge valve couples to the 
main signal line ; the strainer in the car discharge valve, 
as used in the old equipment, being dirty ; port d (Fig. 
27) being stopped up ; a too loose fit of stem 10 (Fig. 27) 
in bushing 9 ; a baggy diaphragm 12 (Fig. 27), or a hole 
in it ; the bowl of the whistle (Fig. 29) being closed with 
scouring material, or the bell of the whistle being im- 
properly adjusted ; a reduction that took enough air 
from the whistle line but did not take it fast enough, or, 
as explained before, the reducer might be frozen, 

Q. Why would the whistle not respond if port 
d {Fig. 2f) were closed? 

A. No air could reach the whistle. 

Q. Why, with a loose fit to stem 10 {Fig. 2f) in 
bushing g, would the whistle not respond ? 



154 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. If the reduction were not made sufficiently quick 
with the car discharge valve, especially on a long train, 
the friction of the air passing through the pipe would 
tend to decrease the suddenness of the reduction, so that, 
when the wave reached the signal valve, the reduction 
might be so weak that, if stem lo were a loose fit in 
hushing 9, the air in chambers A and B might equalize 
without raising diaphragm 12 (Fig. 27). 

Q. Why would a baggy or stretched diaphragm 
12 {Fig. 2f) catise the whistle not to respond? 

A. When the reduction is made on the signal line, 
a reduction is made in chamber A of the signal valve, 
leaving the pressure in chamber B greater. If the 
diaphragm is bagged, the pressure in chamber B lifts the 
diaphragm, but the stem 10 is not moved. 

Q. What causes this diaphragm to bag ? 

A. The use of poor rubber, or oil from the pump 
working through on the rubber, causing it to decay. 
A diaphragm is occasionally found with a hole rotted 
through it, allowing chambers A and B to be directly 
connected. 

Q. What may cause a whistle to respond only 
once when the conductor pulls the cord twice ? 

A. He may have pulled the cord the second time 
before the whistle stopped blowing the first, thus getting 
one long blow, or he may have made the second dis- 
charge before the pressures in chambers A and B had 
become equalized. 

Q. What will happen if dirt gets on the seat of 
valve ^ (Fig- 28), or the corresponding valve in 
Fig. 30 ? 

A. The valves cannot close, and we will get main 
reservoir pressure of ninety pounds on the whistle line. 

Q, What effect has this f 



SiGNAi^ System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 155 

A. The whistle is likely to blow, especially on a 
short train, when the brakes are released ; the air whistle 
on the engine will screech when used ; and, if the stem 
10 in the signal valve is a little loose in bushing 9 (Fig. 
27), the whistle is likely to blow two or three times 
for one reduction at the car discharge valve ; there will 
be a stronger exhaust from the car discharge valve 
than usual, and hose are more likely to burst. 

Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow when the 
brakes are released^ if there is main reservoir press- 
ure on the whistle line f 

A. Because to release brakes the main reservoir 
pressure is thrown into the train line. This makes the 
pressure in the main reservoir less than that in the 
whistle line, and, on account of the dirt on the seat of the 
valve 4 (Fig. 28), the whistle-line pressure feeds back into 
the main reservoir, and the reduction thus made on the 
signal line causes the air whistle to blow. 

Q. Why^ with this trouble , . is the whistle more 
likely to sound on an engine alone than with a traiii, 
when the brakes are released? 

A. With an engine alone there is but a small volume 
of air on the signal line, and the signal-line pressure 
feeding back into the main reservoir would cause a more 
sudden reduction than if the signal line were longer and 
the volume greater, as on a train. 

Q. Why will the air whistle on the engine 
screech when used f 

A. Because the bell is adjusted to be used with only 
a forty-pound pressure instead of ninety. 

Q, Why is the whistle likely to blow two or 
three times with one reduction from the car discharge 
valve, if main reservoir pi^essure is on the whistle 



156 Air-Brake Catechism. 

line and the stem 10 is loose in bushing g {Fig. 
2f) of the signal valve f 

A. Because a reduction at the car discharge valve 
starts the signal valve in operation, and the reducer can- 
not feed air into the whistle line properly to cause the 
signal valve to close until the signal-line pressure is 
below forty pounds. The tendency for the pressure to 
fluctuate in chambers A and 5, due to the loose fit of the 
stem 10, causes the diaphragm to bounce and the whistle 
to respond two or three times. 

• Q. If an engineer wishes to know how much 
pressure he has on his signal line, and he has no 
gauge with which to test it, how can he determine 
it? 

A. Shut off the pump and open the bleed cock on 
the main reservoir, then get up in the cab and watch 
the red hand. When the whistle blows, the red hand 
represents a trifle less pressure than is being carried on 
the whistle line. 

Q, Why does the whistle blow f 

A. Because, when the main reservoir pressure is 
drained below the pressure on the whistle line, the press- 
ure feeds from the whistle line back into the main 
reservoir, causing a reduction ofthe whistle-line pressure, 
and this usually causes the whistle to blow. 

Q. What is likely to make a whistle give one 
long blast f 

A. A tight fit in bushing 9 of stem 10 (Fig. 27). 

Q. Why was the new reducer gotten 2ip ? 

A. To have one that would be more sensitive than 
the old one and would feed leaks more promptly, thus 
doing away with the chance of the whistle being blown 
by a small leak. 



Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 157 

Q, What will cause a luhistle to sing co7istantly ? 

A. Dirt on the seat of stem 10 in bushing 7 (Fig. 27). 

Q. Why may jars cause a whistle to blow ? 

A. Oil baking upon diaphragm 12 of the signal 
valve makes it rigid, and ajar will sometimes shake the 
stem 10 (Fig. 27) from its seat. 

Q. What would we do to increase or decrease the 
pressiire on the whistle line with the new reducer ? 

A. Screw up on the bottom nut to increase it, and 
down to decrease it. 

Q. What with the old redttcer ? 
A. Put in a stiffer spring or put a washer under the 
old one. 

Q What are the two holes for in the upper 
part of the old reducer ? 

A. To allow any air to escape to the atmosphere 
that gets by the diaphragm 7. 



WBSTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. 

Q. Why was the introduction of the high-speed 
brake necessary ? 

A. The call by the traveling public for higher train 
speed rendered it necessary to insure safety of lives and 
property. 

Q. How much more efficient is it than the 
ordinary quick- action brake ? 

A. About thirty per cent. 

Q. What class of trains tcses^this brake ? 

A. The Empire State, Black Diamond, and Con- 
gressional Limited. 

Q. What percentage of braking power to the 
light weight of a passenger car is generally used 
with the ordinary quick-action brake ? 

A. Ninety per cent. 

Q. What percentage is used with the high-speed 
brZke ? 

A. One hundred and twenty-five per cent. 

Q. How can such a high braking power be used 
without flattening wheels f 

A. Because it is only used when the train is moving 
at very fast speed, and an automatic reducing valve gradu- 
ally reduces the brake-cylinder pressure so that, when 
the speed of the train has been slackened, the brake- 
cylinder pressure has also been gradually reduced to the 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 159 

sixty-pound pressure limit as used with the ordinary 
quick-action brake. 

Q, Why is it safe to use a higher braking power 
on wheels when the train is runnifig fast ? 

A. Because the faster the wheels turn, the greater is 
the inertia of the wheels, which the friction of the 
brake shoes has to overcome before the wheels will cease 
revolving. The Westinghouse- Galton tests, made in 
England in 1878, proved that the faster the tread of 
the wheel moved against the brake shoe, the less the 
friction between the two. As the speed decreases the 
friction increases, the friction between the wheel and 
the rail remaining about constant, regardless of the 
speed of the train. 

Q. What train-line and auxiliary pressures are 
carried with the high-speed brake f 
A. About one hundred and ten pounds. 

Q, At what pressure do the atixiliary and 
brake cylinder eq^Lalize when the brake is full set 
in emergency y using one htmdred and te7i pounds 
auxiliary presstcre ? 

A. About eighty-five pounds. 

Q. What reduces this eighty-five pounds to sixty 
pounds, the safe pressure for slow speed? 

A. The automatic reducing valve shown in the ac- 
companying cut (Fig. 31). 

Q. Explain the action of the reducing valve. 

A. When air is in the brake cylinder, it is free to reach 
the top of piston 6 of the reducing valve. 

As long as the tension of the spring 1 1 is greater than 
the brake-cylinder pressure on top of the piston, the 
slide valve 8 is as shown. 

When the brake is full set, the pressure in the cylin- 



i6o 



Air-Brake Catechism-. 



der being greater than the tension of the spring, the 
piston 6 is forced down and carries the slide valve with 




Fig. 31.— High-Spk^d Brake Reducing Vai.ve. 

it, thus opening port b into port a, allowing brake- 
cylinder pressure to escape to the atmosphere. 



Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 



IDI 



1 62 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

The apex of the triangular port b points up. If the 
slide valve 8 is drawn down a little, in a service applica- 
tion, port b has a wide opening into port a, allowing 
cylinder pressure to escape quickly. The high cylinder 
pressure in emergency forces piston 4 down full stroke ^ 
and cylinder pressure escapes slowly through the small 
end of port b. As cylinder pressure lessens, spring 11 
raises piston 4 and slide valve 8, opening port b wider, 
thus releasing air faster ; and the slow exhaust ensues 
with a high, and quick exhaust with low train speeds. 
Spring 1 1 is adjusted to sixty pounds on passenger cars 
and fifty on engines and tenders. 

Q. What is necessary to make a high-speed 
brake out of the present quick-action equipment f 

A. Simply the addition of the reducing valve. 

Q. What cha7ige has to be made on engines f 

A. A duplex pump governor is added, two train-- 
line governors are used, and reducing valves are con- 
nected to the tender and driver brake cylinders. 

Q. Why are two train-line and a d^tplex p^tmp 
governor tcsed f 

A. Only two governors are used at a time. They 
are so arranged with cut-out cocks that the engine may 
be used with the ' ' high-speed ' ' brake or with the 
ordinary quick-action brake. 

The cut (Fig. 32) gives an idea of the advancement 
in air-brake appliances. The three figures (page 161) 
represent, by scale, stops made by the same train going 
at the same rate of speed, but equipped as indicated. 

It takes about twice as far to stop a train going at 
forty, three times going at fifty, and about five times 
going at sixty miles an hour, as it does if the speed of 
the train is thirty miles an hour. 



TRAIN INSPECTION. 

Q. Why is train i^ispection necessary ? 

A. To find and remedy, before trying to handle the 
train on a grade, any defects that would render its 
handling unsafe ; part of the pistons may be out against 
the cylinder heads when the brakes are applied, the re- 
taining valves may be poor, some brakes may not ap- 
ply, auxiliaries may not charge, leaks may exist, the 
brakes may go into emergency when trying to make a 
service application, and many other defects may exist. 

Q. Where should we begin to get a train ready ? 
A. At the rear. 

Q. Is it wrong to start at the head end ? 

A. It would not be were the cocks not opened be- 
tween the tender and cars. If the cocks were opened, 
the air would blow through and out of a chance open 
cock, and a loss of time and air would result. 

Q. Commencing at the rear, what should be 
done first f 

A. The rear angle cock must be closed and the hose 
hung up. 

Q. What harm, is there in allowing the hose to 
drag ? 

A. It collects dirt and cinders, which are blown into 
the train and help to close strainers, and which work 
into the triples and cause them to wear faster. Ic 
winter, ice getting into the hose may block it. 



164 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What should we do as we go towards the 
engine ? 

A. See tliat tlie retainer handles are turned down, 
hand brakes released, hose coupled, and cocks turned so 
that the cars are cut in. 

Q, How does the cock in the cross-over pipe, 
connectiiig the train line to the triple, usually stand 
when the car is cut in ? 

A. At right angles to the pipe. See Plate A. 

Q. How should the angle cocks stand at the end 
of the car when C2it in f 
A. Parallel with the pipe. 

Q. Do the angle cocks and cut-out cocks always 
stand as just described ? 

A. No ; sometimes in just the reverse positions. 

Q. Why is this 9 

A. These are cocks used with very old equipment 
and may be readily recognized, as they differ in shape 
from those now employed. If in doubt, look at the 
crease in the top of the plug, which always stands 
parallel to the opening in the valve. 

Q. What should we always do before co2tpling 
the hose between the engine and cars ? 

A. Blow out the train line on the engine to get rid 
of dirt and water. 

Q. After coupling the hose and turning the 
a7tgle cocks, are we ready to look over the brakes f 

A. No, not until the pump has charged the train. 

Q. With a constant pressure of seventy pounds 
071 the train line^ how long should it take to charge 
one auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with 
the modern equipment f 



Train Inspection. 165 

A. About seventy seconds. 

Q. How long does it take to charge a traiii of 
twenty cars f 

A. This depends on the condition of the pump and 
the leaks in the train. If the capacity of the pump 
were sufficient to keep a constant train-line pressure of 
seventy pounds, twenty cars could be charged as quickly 
as one. This cannot be done, as twenty feed grooves 
take air from the train line faster than the pump will 
supply it. 

Q. Who should tell when it is time for the 
test ? 

A. The engineer. He should wait until full press- 
ure is obtained and then make a twenty-pound service 
reduction. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. One brakeman should go over the train turning 
up the retainer handles, while the other examines piston 
travel and looks for leaks. 

Q. What should the piston travel be ? 

A. If no rule exists on your road in regard to this, a 
piston travel between 5 and 8 inches will be found to 
give good satisfaction on ordinary grades. 

Q, What should be done after the retainer 
handles are raised and the piston travel adjusted ? 

A. The engineer should be signaled to release, and 
then there should be a wait of fifteen or twenty seconds, 
to allow the brake- cylinder pressure to reduce to what 
the retainer holds. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. The man on deck should turn down the retainer 
handles. If a blow issues from the retainer when the 
handle is turned down, the retainer is working properly. 



1 66 Air-Brake Catechism. 

A strict count of those working should be kept. The 
man on the ground should walk along and see that the 
brakes release when the retainer handles are turned 
down. 

Q. What should be done after the inspection is 
completed? 

A. A report should be made to the engineer and 
conductor, giving them a knowledge of the piston 
travel, the number of retainers in working order, the 
number of cars, the number of air cars in working 
order, and any general information concerning the con- 
dition of the train. 

Q. In testing, would it do for a brakeman to 
open the angle cock at the rear of the train to set 
the brakes f 

A. This is decidedly a poor practice ; brakes that 
cannot be worked from an engine will sometimes work 
by opening an angle cock. If a hose lining were loose, 
a brakeman might apply the brakes and an engineer re- 
lease them all right, while, in making the reduction 
from the engine, the train-line reduction going ahead 
might roll up the lining and close the hose. We want 
to know just how the brakes will work from the engine. 

Q. If there is a leak in the hose couplings, what 
should be done f 

A. Turn angle cocks, break the coupling, and, if 
the seat is bad and there is no extra hose gasket, make 
the seats round, if they are not so, and recouple. If 
the leak still exists, break the coupling, put a small 
stick back of each lug, and close the couplings on them. 

Q. Why should paper never be used to make a 
joint f 

A. It works into strainers, often causing an auxil- 



Train Inspe:ction. 167 

iary to charge slowly, and it may prohibit getting quick 
action on this car. 

Q. When inspectmg a train, if we find a brake 
that does not apply with the rest, what should be 
done ? 

A. See that the car is cut in properly, and try the 
bleed cock to see that there is air in the auxiliary. If 
the auxiliary is charged, signal the engineer for a train- 
line reduction. 

Q. If the brake applies andthe^i leaks off grad- 
ually, without any air coming oitt of the triple ex- 
haust, what is probably the trouble? 

A. The air is blowing by the packing leather in the 
brake cylinder. 

Q. How can a brake that does not apply when 
the redttction is made be s07netim.es made to work ? 

A. By cutting it off from the car ahead and the one 
behind it and opening the angle cock. The cylinder 
may be dirty, and setting the brake in the emergency 
may loosen the dirt and cause it to work properly. 

Q. If the a^txiliary were found to contain no air 
when the bleed cock was opened^ what might be the 
trouble ? 

A. The feed grooves might be corroded shut in the 
triple ; the strainer where the cross- over pipe joins the 
main train line, or the one where the cross-over pipe 
joins the triple, may be filled with dirt and scale. 

Q. Is it good practice to pour oil iitto a hose to 
w.ake a brake work f 

A. Decidedly not ; it may occasionally furnish tem- 
porary relief, but it will decay the rubber- seated valve 
and dampen the strainers, pipe, and triples so that dirt 
ivill adhere to them and render them sticky. 



1 68 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. Is a small leaky ofie that the pump will 
easily overcome, mo7^e easily managed in a long or a 
short train ? 

A. In a long train. 

Q, Why f 

A, Because there is a much larger volume of air in a 
long train line, and the reduction causing the brakes to 
leak on harder after being applied will be much slower 
on a long than on a short train. Frequently a leak that 
could not be gotten along with in a train of three or 
four cars, if cut in with twenty tight cars, would not be 
noticed. 

Q. If a retainer were broken off and the pipe 
plugged, what would result ? 

A. After the engineer applied the brake, he could 
not release it, as the exhaust port would have been 
closed. 

Q, Would it interfere with applying the brake f 

A. No. 

Q. If a brake sticks, what should be done f 

A. Look to see that no retainer handle is up, that the 
hand brake is not set, and that no lever is caught. Then 
signal the engineer again to release. If he is unable to 
release it, cut the car out and bleed it. 

Q. Should a car be bled when cut out ? 

A. Always ; a leakage of train-line pressure between 
the cut-out cock and the triple might cause the brake 
to apply after it was cut out, if any air were left in the 
auxiliary. 

Q. If the piston stays out on a car after we 
hear the air escape froTn the triple exhaust port^ 
what is wrong ? 



Train Inspection. 169 

A. The release spring is weak probably. 
Q, Is it necessary to cut such a brake oitt ? 
A. No ; tlie jar of tlie wheels against the shoes will 
force the piston in. 

Q, If two hose cotiplings are frozen together^ how 
should they be separated ? 

A. The ice should be thawed, or the gaskets will be 
torn. 

Q, If a triple fails to work because it is frozen^ 
what should be done ? 

A. It should be thawed and the drain plug removed 
in the bottom of the triple, to remove the water and avoid 
a repetition of the trouble. 

Q. What three things would cause the brakes 
to go into emergency when making a gradual train- 
line reduction f 

A. A weak graduating spring, a broken graduating 
pin, and, by far the most likely, a sticky triple. 

Q^ How wotild we find the triple causing the 
trouble ? 

A. On a train of five or six cars we can watch to see 
which brake grabs first and cut the car out. On a train 
of over seven cars, the brakes do not usually apply with 
the first reduction on the car causing the trouble, so, to - 
find the faulty triple, have the engineer make a five-pound 
train-line reduction, find the car with the brake not set 
and cut it out. Then try again with all cut in to be 
sure that the faulty triple has been found. 

Q. How would we find the faulty triple if the 
brakes went into quick action with the first reduc- 
tion on a long train ? 

A. Turn an angle cock in the middle of the train and 
see which half contains the trouble ; continue in this 



170 Air-Brake Catechism. 

manner until tlie trouble is located in a five car lot ; 
have the brakes applied and watch these five to see 
which brake goes into quick action first, and cut out the 
defective triple. 

Q. If the emergency has been used, or we find a 
car cut out, and, when we cut it in, a strong heavy 
blow issues from the triple exhaust and at the same 
time the brake sets on the car and cannot be released, 
what is the troiible ? 

A. The emergency piston is stuck down, holding 
the emergency valve from its seat. 

Q. How can we close it ? 

A. Tap the triple lightly. If this does not work, 
turn the cut-out cock in cross-over pipe until the blow 
stops and then cut it in suddenly ; the sudden flow of air 
up under the emergency piston may raise it. 

Q, In trying the brakes on a passenger train, 
how should the signal be given f 

A. From the head car to apply them and from the 
rear car to release them, to be sure that the whistle-line 
cocks stand right through the train. On an excursion 
train the signal should be tested from every car in the 
train. 



TRAIN HANDLING. 

Q. What sJiotild we always do befo7^e cotipling 
to a train ? 

A. Start the pump and be sure fhat everything is work- 
ing properly. Do not wait to discover pump or engineer's 
valve defects when your train is in and ready to proceed. 

Q. How should an engineer handle the brake on 
his engine in coupling to a train ? 

A. In backing onto a train, especially an empty one, 
Tie should make two or three applications of his driver 
and tender brakes, and leave his valve on lap when 
coupling to the train. 

Q. Why is this done ? 

A. To couple to the train with reduced auxiliary 
pressures. 

When the cocks between the engine and tender are 
turned, in coupling a train to an engine, the brakes are 
usually applied on the engine and tender on account of 
the reduction caused by the air flowing back into the 
train. If the train line is long and empty, the main 
reservoir pressure might flow back and equalize with 
that in the train line at so low a pressure that it might 
not be able to overcome the tank and driver auxiliary 
pressures so as to force these triples to release position. 
In this case the two brakes would be stuck, and if more 
cars were to be picked up, we would have to wait to 
pump up, or get down and bleed these two brakes off. 
If we had backed onto the train with reduced auxiliary 



172 Air- Brake Catechism. 

pressures on the engine and tender, we would not have 
met with this trouble, as the main reservoir pressure 
could then have raised that in the train line sufficiently 
high to have released the brakes. 

Q. What should be done after getting otir cars 
placed in the train ? 

A. We should wait until everything is fully charged. 

Q. How can we tell when the train is charged? 

A. The pump will about stop ; or place the valve on 
lap, and if everything is charged the black hand will not 
fall. 

Q. What should then be done ? 

A. A thorough test of piston travel, leaks, and 
retaining valves should be made before attempting to 
handle the train on grades. 

Q. How mtuh reduction should be made ? 

A. A gradual twenty-pound reduction. 

Q. Why is it necessary to make a test ? 
A. A part of the pistons may be traveling against 
the cylinder heads, the travel may be too short, the 
retainers may not be good, or there may be something 
wrong with a triple that would throw the whole train 
into emergency when the service application was desired, 
in which case freight might be shifted or broken, especi- 
ally in a train partly equipped with air brakes. 

Q, III testing brakes, from what point should 
they always be applied and released ? 

A. From the engine. 

Q, How could it happen that a brakeman could 
turn an angle cock at the rear of the train and 
apply the brakes , and an engineer could release them, 
but that the engineer could not set them, from the 
engine ? 



Train Handi^ing. 173 

A. The lining of a hose might be loose, so that the 
engineer could throw air back into the train to release 
the brakes, but when a reduction was made, the air 
flowing in the opposite direction might roll the lining 
up and close the hose. 

Q. Is this a common occ^trrence ? 

A. No, but it is by no means unheard of. 

Q. What else should always be tested? 

A. The train line, to see if it leaks, and how much. 

Q. Hozu should this be done ? 

A. By making a seven-pound reduction in service 
position and then placing the valve on lap. Watch the 
black hand, and the fall of it will show the leak on the 
train line. 

Q. Will not a leak on the train line show if the 
valve is simply lapped without first applying the 
brakes ? 

A. It will in time, but not nearly so quickly as by 
the other way. 

Q. Why not ? 

A. If the valve is simply lapped, the brakes are not 
applied, the triples are in release position, and the feed 
grooves connect the auxiliaries and train line. If there 
is a leak in the train line with the triples in release posi- 
tion, the air from the auxiliaries will leak through the 
triple feed grooves back into the train line, and not only 
the train-line but the auxiliary pressures will have to be 
reduced before the black hand on the gauge will register 
the leak. 

Q. Why is the other way quicker ? 

A. If the brakes are first applied and the valve then 
placed on lap, the feed grooves in the triples between the 
auxiliaries and train line have been closed and the leak 



174 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

simply has to reduce the train-line pressure when the 
black hand will register the leak. With a large volume 
of air a given leak will reduce the pressure much more 
slowly than the same leak drawing air from a smaller 
volume. 

Q. J^ist as soon as a train tips over the summit 
of a hiil, what shottld be done f 

A. A reduction of train-line pressure should be made 
to be sure that no angle cocks have been turned and 
that the brakes take hold properly, also to get the use of 
the retainers as soon as possible. 

Q. How can we tell if the angle cocks back of the 
tank are properly tttrned? 

A. By the sound of the train-line exhaust. The 
more cars of air the greater the volume of air on the 
train line, and the longer the equalizing piston will have 
to stay up to make a given reduction. 

Q, What should be done if the brakes do not 
hold properly, or we know by the train-line exhaust 
that an a^tgle cock has been closed? 

A. Blow brakes before the train gets to moving 
fast. 

Q. How m^uch reduction should be made for the 
first f 

A. Not less than five pounds, and after we get over 
fifteen cars it is better to make a seven-pound reduction. 

Q. In a part air train, what zvottld be the harm 
in starting with a tenpound reduction ? 

A. The brakes setting hard on the air-brake cars 
would cause the slack on the non-air cars to run up 
hard, causing a jar that would be likely to damage the 
car or the contents, to say nothing of the efifect on the 
crew in the caboose. 



Train Handling. 175 

Q. Why is a light reduction liable not to set 
the brakes, especially on a long train ? 

A. Because, with a large volume of train-line pressure, 
reductions are made so slowly that there is a tendency 
for auxiliary pressure to feed through the triple feed 
grooves into and equalize with that in the train line, in 
which case the triple pistons would not move; or, if they 
did, the air going from the auxiliary into the brake 
C}dinder very slowly would blow through the leakage 
grooves past the pistons and out to the atmosphere. 

Q. How much should be made for the second 
reduction f 

A. This is governed largely by circumstances, but 
the best results with long trains will be gotten if no 
very light reductions are made. If the reduction is 
being made on a long train and the packing rings of 
some of the triples are a little loose, there is a tendency 
on the part of the auxiliary pressure, that should go to 
the brake cylinders, to leak back into the train line 
by the packing ring. 

Q. We continue our train-line reductions ^tntil 
finally our brakes are full set, that is, all the atcxil- 
iary and brake-cylinder pressures have equalized. 
How m^uch redtiction is usttally necessary to accom- 
plish this, if the piston travel is not over 8 inches f 

A. About twenty pounds, if it is made with one re- 
duction ; but in handling a train on a grade, if we 
needed to get all we could, it would be permissible to 
make a twenty-five-pound reduction. 

Q. Give the reason for this last statement. 

A. In descending a grade, we may have gone two, 
three, or four miles, while we have been making a twenty- 
pound reduction. Naturally, some of the air put into 
the brake cylinders has escaped by the packing leathers 



176 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

to tlie atmosphere in going this distance, and making 
another train-line reduction will let more auxiliary press- 
ure to the cylinders. Where the twenty-pound reduc- 
tion was made with one reduction, the air had no time 
to leak away by the cylinder packing leathers. 

Q. Stippose we had already made a twenty-five- 
pound reduction and the packing leathers in the 
brake cylinders were practically tight^ if we con- 
tinued taking air from the train line, would \ the 
brakes be set any harder ? 

A. No. 

Q. Would we lose any braking power f 

A. Yes. 

Q. How would we lose braking power ? 

A. The brake is already full set, that is, the auxil- 
iary and brake- cylinder pressures are equal ; with a 
further reduction of train-line pressure, no more auxil- 
iary pressure can go to the cylinder ; but just as soon as 
the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the 
train line to overcome the resistance of the graduating 
spring in the triple, the triple piston will be forced to 
emergency position, and we will have a direct connec- 
tion between the auxiliary and brake cylinder through 
the emergency port in the end of the slide valve. The 
train-line pressure being less than that in the auxiliary 
and cylinder, both these pressures will begin leaking by 
the packing ring of the triple piston into the train line. 

Q. Is there any other way in which we would 
lose braking power by too heavy a train-line re- 
dtiction f 

A. Yes ; the train-line check in the emergency part 
of the triple is seldom air-tight, owing to corrosion. 
When the train-line pressure is less than that in the 
brake cylinder, the brake-cylinder pressure forces the 



Train Handling. 177 

rubber-seated valve from its seat and leaks by the train- 
line check into the train line. 

Q. Is there usually any warning to let the en- 
gineer knozu he has made too heavy a reduction f 

A. Yes ; especially on a long train, where there are 
more packing rings to leak. 

Q. What is it? 

A. Under these circumstances the equalizing piston 
is likely to rise of its own accord, causing a blow at the 
train-line exhaust. 

Q. What cattses the piston to rise f 
A. The engineer reduced the little drum pressure in 
order to cause the equalizing piston to rise and reduce 
the train-line pressure. It seated when the train line 
was a trifle less than the little drum pressure. When 
too heavy a train-line reduction had been made, we saw 
that the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures fed back 
into the train line. The train line now being greater 
than the little drum pressure, the equalizing piston is 
forced from its seat, and the blow at the train-line ex- 
haust continues as long as air is feeding into the train 
line from the auxiliaries and brake cylinders. 

Q, Does the equalizing piston always rise and 
give this wariting? 

A. No ; if the packing ring in the equalizing piston 
is too loose, the air feeds by and equalizes the little drum 
and train -line pressures, but the braking power is lost 
just the same. 

Q. Is the triple piston supposed to forin a joint 
07i the leather gasket between the triple head and 
the main body of the triple? 

A. Yes, when the gasket is new, but the gasket 
dries out so that the surface is not smooth. 



178 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What places should we pick otU, if possible in 
which to recharge ? 

A. Where the grade lets up a little and on curves 
where a train binds. 

Q. To release brakes, where should the handle of 
the engineer s valve be placed f 

A. In full release position. 

Q. How long should it be left here ? 

A, This is governed entirely by the length of the 
train. If, in descending a grade, both hands on the 
gauge show that the train-line and main reservoir press- 
ures equalize below seventy pounds, the valve should 
be left in this position until both hands start to go above 
seventy. If the pressures equalize above seventy pounds 
when the valve is thrown to full release and stay 
there, the valve should be moved to running position 
as soon as the brakes are released, so as not to over- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q. Why, on a long train, should the valve be left 
in full release position until both hands start above 
seventy pounds ? 

A. A large port connects the main reservoir and 
train line in this position and a small one in running 
position, and we get the benefit of the excess pressure 
from the main reservoir in recharging ; the pump works 
faster, and we can charge the train much more quickly, 
because the train-line pressure being higher forces air 
into the auxiliaries faster. 

Brakes are likely to stick and wheels slide, especially 
on a long train, if we try to release brakes in running 
position. 

Q. Why does the pump work faster f 
A. Because there is less main reservoir pressure for 
it to work against. 



Train Handling. 179 

Q. Why do the last three 07^ four pottnds feed 
more slowly into the train line, if the valve is pttt i7i 
runnifig position ? 

A. Because when, in running position, the train-line 
pressure is almost up to that at which the train-line gov- 
ernor is adjusted, the spring in the governor begins to 
be compressed and allow the little feed valve to partly 
close, in which case the pump will compress air faster 
than it can get through the train-line governor. When 
the main reservoir is charged to ninety pounds, the 
pump practically stops, and this is likely to happen be- 
fore the auxiliaries are fully recharged. 

Q. Why will some brakes stick in trying to re- 
lease them in running position ? 

A. Because the train-line pressure rising slowly may 
feed by some triple piston-packing rings, and allow auxil- 
iary pressure to keep equal with that in the train line. 

Q. Why will the wheels slide in this case ? 

A. Because the brake on this car has been left full 
set and the auxiliary fully recharged. A five-pound re- 
duction will probably set this brake in full with a press- 
ure of sixty-five pounds, and this is more than is safe, 
especially with a light car. If a brake once sticks it is 
very likely to remain so, as the auxiliary and brake- 
cylinder pressures equalize so high that it requires a 
higher train-line pressure to release this brake, and the 
train-line pressure increasing slowly, gives the air a bet- 
ter chance to leak by the triple packing ring. A brake 
acting this way may be all right if handled properly. 

Q. In descending a grade after getting the tcse 
of the retainer and having everything recharged, 
why is a fivepound redttction miuh more effectttal 
than a fivepotcnd reduction made without the ttse 
of the retainer ? 



i8o Air-Brake Catechism. 

A. Because in one case we are putting five pounds 
from the auxiliary into fifteen pounds in the cylinder, 
and in the other we are putting five pounds from the 
auxiliary into an empty cylinder, and a part of that put 
in blows through the leakage groove before the piston 
travels far enough to close it. 

Q. If a twenty-pound train-line reduction will 
apply a brake in f till without the use of the retainer, 
how much reduction ottght to set the brake in full 
after getting its use ? 

A. Not over fifteen pounds. 

Q. If all retainers are being used, is it necessary 
after charging up to make a five or seven pound for 
our first reduction ? 

A. Yes, some of the retainers might have been out 
of order, so as not to hold any air in the cylinder, and 
less than a five-pound reduction would not catch these 
brakes again. 

Q. What should an engineer do, if, when he is 
not using the brakes, he feels them applying so as 
perceptibly to diminish the speed of the train ? 

A. He should place the handle of the engineer's 
valve on lap. 

Q. Why ? 

A. Probably a hose has burst, or the conductor is 
using the conductor's valve. If the valve is not lapped, 
the main reservoir pressure will be lost, and there will 
be~ no pressure with which to release the brakes and re- 
charge the auxiliaries. 

Q. Which is less hurtful, a leak that will grad- 
21 ally slow a train up, or one that will simply keep 
the train running steadily ? 



Train Handling. i8i 

A. A leak that will slow a train up is much to be 
preferred. 

Q, Why ? 

A. If the leak simply runs the train steadily and the 
engineer allows the pressure to gradually leak away be- 
cause he seems to be making a nice, smooth run, he 
would have a hard time stopping the train if necessity 
demanded it, after the pressure had leaked down to fifty 
pounds. 

Q. Shottld an engineer try to make as smooth a 
run with air as can be do7ie with hand brakes ? 

A. As a rule, no, although on some light grades a 
few retainers will run them smoothly. On heavy grades 
and long trains it is necessary to slow up to recharge. 

Q. What should always be done, where possible, 
in making train-line redtictions f 
A. Watch the gauge. 

Q. How do you account for the fact that some- 
times, after a seven-potind reduction of little drtim 
pressure is made and the valve lapped, the gauge 
records only a fivepound redtiction whe7i the train- 
line exhatist closes ? 

A^ The packing ring in the equalizing piston is 
loose, and train-line pressure has fed by it into the little 
drum. 

Q. Is this more likely to happen on a long or a 
short train ? 

A. On a long train. 

Q. Why ? 

A. As there is a greater volume of air on the train 
line of a long train, it takes longer to reduce the press- 
ure, and the train-line pressure has a longer time to 
leak in the manner described. 



1 82 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q. If a quick 7redttction is made i7^ einergency 
with the engine alone, and the valve is then placed 
on lap, why is the tank or drivei^ brake likely to 
kick off after a feiv seconds, althotigh they wo^tld 
stay set i7i service application ? 

A. In emergency position, air is drawn direct from 
the train line without taking any from the little drum. 
When the valve is placed on lap, the little drum press- 
ure leaks by the packing ring of the equalizing piston, 
raises the train-line pressure, and kicks off one or both 
brakes. 

Q. Why will this happen on an engine and not 
on a train ? 

A. The volume of air on the train line of an engine 
alone is very small, and a slight leak into it is sufficient 
to raise the train-line pressure and release the brake. 
With a train, the train-line volume is so large that the 
leakage into it from the little drum is not sufficient to 
affect the triples. 

Q. The release of the brakes on the engine alone, 
after the use of the emergency, is ascribed by some to 
the surge of air. Is this the catise ? 

A. No ; a surge of air would release the brake almost 
instantly. The brake does not release sometimes until 
five or ten seconds have passed. 

Q. Why will this happen on one engine and not 
on another f 

A. This simply means that on one the triple piston- 
packing rings are looser than that in the equalizing 
piston, and the train-line pressure feeds by the triple 
piston and equalizes with that in the auxiliaries. 

Q. The above usually happens wheji stopping aii 



Train Handling. 183 

engine at a zvater-crane or 071 a tttrntable. How 
ai^e these stops best made with the air f 

A. One application is best to use with an engine 
alone. If we find that we are stopping three or four 
feet short, open the throttle, and the engine can be helped 
along a short distance and a smoother stop be made. 

Q. What happens eveiy time you tcse the efyier- 
gency on a tttrntable ? 

A. You strike the table a blow equal to the weight 
of your engine multiplied by the speed at which you are 
moving, and then, if the turntable breaks down, wonder 
why the company does not provide a decent table. 

Q. In making a water -tank stop with a pas- 
senger train, how shoitld it be done to avoid a jar to 
the train and pa.ssengers f 

A. The stop should be made with two applications 
of the brake, except the grade is too steep and the press- 
ure too low for safety. 

Q. How do we handle the valve to make the 
Jirst release so that the brakes will respond with the 
first reduction ? 

A. When the speed of the train has been reduced to 
about three miles an hour, throw the valve handle to 
full release and bring it back on lap immediately. 

Q. Why bri7ig it back on lap ? 

A. So as not to raise the train-line pressure too high. 
The feed grooves in the triples are small, and have only 
three or four seconds in which to equalize the train-line 
and auxiliary pressures. If the valve is left in full re- 
lease or running position, and the train-line pressure gets 
to seventy pounds, and there is, say, only fifty- five pounds 
in the auxiliaries, the triple pistons will not move to serv- 
ice position until over a fifteen-pound reduction of train- 
line pressure has been made. By the time we have made 
this amount of reduction in service position we shall 



184 Air-Brake Catechism, 

have gone by the water- crane, unless we use the emer- 
gency, and that is what is usually done if the engineer 
is not up to date, 

Q. When should brakes be released' on a pas- 
senger train ? 

A. Just before the train stops. 

Q. What shotild be done on a grade just heavy 
enough so that the train will start with the brakes- 
released? 

A. vStop the same as at a water-crane. No jar will 
be felt with a light application. 

Q. How abotit a heavy grade ? 

A. Our stop will then depend on the grade and our 
pressure. Safety should be of first importance, everL 
if the stop is a trifle rough, 

Q. What makes the jar, if the brakes are not 
released before the train stops ? 

A. With the brakes set hard, the trucks are dis- 
torted, and it is the struggle of the trucks to right them- 
selves that causes the jar. 

Q, Can brakes be released longer before stopping 
after a light or a heavy reduction ? 

A. After a heavy reduction, as there is more air iri 
the cylinders to be gotten rid of, and the brakes release 
more slowly. 

Q. What is meant by an application? 

A. It covers all the time from the moment the 
brake is applied until it is released ; three or four re- 
ductions may be made during one application. 

Q. In making a stop with a freight train, whew 
should brakes be released ? 

A. After the train comes to a full stop, to avoid 



Train Handling. 185 

breaking the train in two if the slack runs out hard in 
releasing before stopping. 

Q. If we have stopped short with a freight 
train, and need to release before stopping to picll up 
farther, what should be done ? 

A. We should wait for the slack to adjust itself in 
the train before using steam. Even then the steam 
should be used very cautiously. 

Q. In running passenger trains over cross-overs 
to get around freights, what care shotild be taken ? 

A. To do this, brakes have to be used when flagged, 
at the upper cross-over, lower cross-over, and usually at a 
station. We should charge up as much as possible 
after each application. Do not follow the plan of re- 
leasing and putting the valve on lap in. such a case, to 
be sure the triples will respond quickly. They will 
respond quickly, but if the station stop is on a grade, 
you may not have air enough left to make it when you 
get there. 

Q. What is the tisual cause of trains r tinning 
away ? 

A. Making a great many reductions without oc- 
casionally charging up, or allowing the pressure to leak 
away, because the train is running steady, and then 
when we get ready to recharge, not having enough air 
left to slow up the train. 

Q. On a fast passenger run, how "inay time be 
saved in tising the brake ? 

A. By waiting longer before applying the brakes and 
then making a ten-pound reduction at the start. 

Q. Will this not jar the passengers f 

A. Not when going fast. Passenger trains are con- 
tinuous, and there is very little slack to run up. A ten- 



1 86 Air-Brake Catechism. 

pound reduction made with a train moving ten miles an 
hour would produce a very unpleasant sensation to pas- 
sengers, where at forty miles an hour it would not be 
noticed. This is explained in the subject High-Speed 
Erake. 

Q. Should brakes be tested in taking on cars f 

A. Yes, to be sure that the brakes on these cars 
work properly, and that the brakes back of them can be 
applied and released through them. 

Q, When all retainers on a train are not neces- 
sary, how should they be used ? 

A. At the head end if the grade is short ; otherwise 
change them around and use them on every other car, 
so as not to overheat any wheels. 

Q. If the brakes are applied and the engineer 
wishes to release and drift two or three hundred 
feet before stopping, what shotild be done f 

A. Enough retainers should be put in operation to 
keep the slack bunched. 

Q. When shottld hand brakes be used? 

A. On the rear of a part air train when backing it 
into a siding, or, if it stands on a knoll, to keep the 
slack from running back. 

Q. Should hand brakes and air brakes be tcsed 
together on the same car ? 

A. This is a risky practice. If the two brakes work 
together, we are very likely to slide wheels, and if they 
work in opposition, there is danger of a brakeman being 
thrown from the car, and the hand brake being applied 
will take up the slack in the brake rigging, so that the 
piston cannot get by the leakage groove. 

Q. If hand brakes be used back of the air, if 



Train Handling. 187 

there are not enough air brakes to control the train, 
what is likely to happen ? 

A. This is likely to produce a bad effect when the 
air brakes are released. If the retainers are poor and 
allow the slack to run out, the train may be broken 
in two. 

Q, If hand brakes are to be used with the air, 
where should they- be applied f 

A. Next to the air. 

Q. Should driver brakes be cut in when descend- 
ing a heavy grade ? 

A. Always, or so much more work is thrown on the 
car brakes. 

Q. If an air-brake train should be stalled on a 
gradey should part of the train be left with air 
brakes to hold them until the engine comes back ? 

A. No ; the air brakes should be released one at a 
time, and the hand brakes applied. If left with the air 
holding them, the air might leak off and allow the train 
to run away. 

Q. Wheit brakes are full set, the long travel 
brakes are easier to release. They may be released 
and leave the short travel brakes applied. Is this 
good practice in holdi^ig trains ? 

A. No ; it is very bad practice. A train may be 
broken in two in this way. 

Q. If brakes stick and will not release by placing 
the valve in full release, what should be done ? 

A. Make a full service reduction and then, with a 
full excess pressure, throw to full release. If a release 
from the engine is possible, this will accomplish it. 



i88 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q. What harm is there in pulling hose apart 
instead of imcotipling them ? 

A. The couplings are likely to be sprung so that 
they cannot be coupled again, and the train line is likely 
to be torn from the car or engine. 

Q. Does it do any harm to lean on the rotary 
handle when the brakes are applied? 

Ac Yes; if the dovetail piece that fits into the rotary 
is tight on account of dirt and gum, the rotary may be 
cocked so as to allow main reservoir pressure to feed into 
the train line under the rotary and release some of the 
brakes. 

Q, What is thf trouble, when there is a leak on 
the train line^ if the engine is alone, but coupled to 
tight cars, the leak does not show ? 

A. The leak is in the angle cock at the rear of the 
tender. When coupled to a train, the leak is not noticed 
as the cock is open. With the engine alone the cock 
leaking allows air to pass out of the hose to the atmos- 
phere. 

Q. In double heading, which engine should han- 
dle the brakes ? 

A. The lead engine. 

Q. What should the second engineer do ? 

A. Turn the cut-out cock under his valve, and under 
no circumstance, unless told to, should he cut in and 
interfere with the work of the lead engine. 

Q. If the pusher engine has no cut-out cock, 
what shotild be done ? 

A. The valve should be placed on lap. 

Q. In this case, why does the equalizing piston 
sometimes rise f 



Train Handung. 189 

A. Because the lead engineer increases train-line 
pressure to release the brakes, and the pressure under- 
neath the equalizing piston is greater than that above it. 

Q, Hozv may it be seated f 

A. By putting the handle in full release position 
long enough to charge the little drum and seat the pis- 
ton. 

Q, In case of emei^gency , when it is necessary 
for us to leave the eitgine, what should be done ? 

A. Throw the engineer's valve to full emergency 
position and leave it there. In our hurry, if we tried to 
lap the valve, we might get it into running position and 
release the brakes. 

Q. Why ought we never to bring our valve back 
fro'in emergency position too quickly f 

A. There might be two or three cars cut out, a 
couple of plain triples, a contracted passage, or a couple 
of cars that would not go into quick action on account of 
dirty strainers. If these cars were together, they would 
not help to carry the quick action back. Generally a 
quick-action triple will not send a quick reduction 
through five cars which are cut out. In this case, if 
the engineer's valve had been lapped too quickly, the 
surge of air ahead from the rear end would release the 
head brakes, and all we would have would be a very 
light service reduction on the cars back of those cut 
out. If we leave the engineer's valve in emergency 
position long enough, we could at least get the full 
service application on these cars, and the emergency 
on those ahead of the cars cut out. 

Q. If we were going into a head end collision, 
and we thotcght we could stop all right and start 
back^ how should the valve be handled f 

A. Set the brakes in emergency and gradually return 



190 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



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192 Air-Brake Catkchism. 

the valve to lap to save train-line pressure to help 
release brakes. If the handle were left in emergency 
position, on a long train the main reservoir pressure 
would not be able to raise that in the train line suffi- 
ciently to release the brakes. 

Q. Should the engine be reversed when the 
driver brakes are applied, if we wish to stop qiiickly ? 

A. No; the following test, made by Mr. Thomas, 
Assistant General Manager of the N. C. and St. L., clearly 
demonstrates that the air brake used alone is better 
than the brakes with the reverse lever, or than the 
reverse lever alone. 

The result of these tests was published in the ^95 
Air- Brake Proceedings, and is given on pages 190 and 191 . 

The conditions of the test were as follows : 

Driving brake power, seventy per cent ; tender, one 
hundred per cent ; N. C. & St. L. coaches, ninety per 
cent ; Pullman sleeper, forty to one hundred and one 
per cent. 

Boyer speed recorder was used and tests were made : 
first, brakes applied ; second, engine reversed ; third, 
sand lever opened. Track was level, in best possible 
condition, and all circumstances favorable. 

From the record of tests the following valuable in- 
formation was derived : 

First. Best stops are made with braking power not 
quite strong enough to skid wheels. 

Second. Length of stop is the same in reversing the 
engine whether cylinder cocks are open or closed. 

. Third. The wheels did not lock rigidly when the 
engine was reversed without the brakes being used. 

Fourth. The tests demonstrated that the brakes used 
alone are better than with the engine being reversed. 
The stop is quicker, and there are no flat spots obtained. 

Fifth. Enough sand is much better than too much. 



Train Handling. 193 

Sixth. Sand should be used before wheels start 
skidding, as its use will not start the wheels revolving 
when once skidding ; it will simply increase the flat 
spots. 

Seventh. Sand being used on a straight track, the 
drivers did not lock when the engine was reversed, but 
on a curve they would. On a curve the engine rocks, 
and sand is not so likely to strike the rail. 

Eighth. In expected emergencies, the drivers did not 
lock when sand was used before brakes were applied 
and engine reversed, but it took so long to get the sand 
running first that, in the end, the stop was not made .as 
quickly as with unexpected emergencies where the en- 
gine was not reversed. 

Ninth. The unexpected emergencies are the ones 
that bear the most weight, as expected emergencies are 
practically unheard of. 

The table on page 194 will be of interest, as it shows 
liow quickly air-brake trains can be stopped when fitted 
with the Westinghouse quick-action brake. 

The train consisted of fifty Pennsylvania 60,000 capac- 
ity box cars whose light weight was '30,000 pounds 
each. ' 



194 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



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DESCRIPTION OF TESTS. 

1. Emergency stops, train running at *twenty miles 
per hour. 

2. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hour. 

3. Applying brakes while train was standing still, to 
show rapidity of application. 

4. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles 
per hour. 

5. Service stops and time of release. Exhibition of 
smoothness of ordinary stop and time of release. 

6. Hand brake stops at * twenty miles per hour with 
five brakemen at their posts. At Buffalo there were 
seven brakemen. 

7. Breaking train in two. 

8. Emergency at * twenty, miles per hour, the brake 
leverage having been increased to give the quickest stop 
possible. In the seven previous tests the usual safe 
braking power was used. 

9. Emergency stop at * forty miles per hour, same 
leverage as test 8. 

10. A train of twenty freight cars and a train of 
twelve ordinary passenger coaches, run along beside 
each other on parallel tracks, each being about the same 
weight and length of trains, and the brakes applied at 
the same time. This shows the relative stopping power 
of the old and the new brake. 

* Speed attempted ; actual speeds attained are given in statement 
and as read from speed gauge on engine. Fractions of miles and 
seconds are omitted. Two engines were used in making tests at St. 
Paul, and one in other tests. 



PIPING. 

Q. What should be done in preparing pipe f 07" 
-use ? 

A. After bending the pipe it should be blown out 
with steam to get rid of scale and dirt. If there is no 
steam at hand, air should be used. Under no consider- 
ation should pipe be used without first being cleaned. 
All fins should be carefully removed to prevent their 
working loose and clogging strainers. 

Q. What should be done to the pipe while it is 
being blown out f 

A. It should be tapped lightly to loosen the scale. 

Q. What size pipe should be used in the differ- 
ent parts of the system ? 

A. The sizes given in the air-brake catalogues are 
correct and should be strictly adhered to. 

Q. When using red lead on pipe, how should it 
be applied? 

A. Always on the outside of the thread to be screwed 
in, as in this way the red lead will not get inside the 
pipe. 

Q. In applying piping, what should be avoided? 

A. No sags should be allowed in which water might 
collect ; where practicable, gentle bends should be sub- 
stituted for elbows, and very short bends should be 
avoided. 

Q. Why are elbows or short bends undesirable ? 
A. The friction caused by them retards the flow of 
air when a sudden reduction is desired in emergency. 



Piping. ' 197 

Q. Cottld pipe zuork be so crooked and elbows so 
mtmerous on an engine that a stifficiently quick re- 
duction to cause emergency woidd not go throtcgh an 
engine f 

A. Yes ; this has been found so on engines, but the 
trouble was remedied when the number of elbows and 
bends was reduced. 

Q. Hoiu should pipe work be secttred ? 

A. By clamps that will hold the pipe rigidly in 
place so as not to allow the pipes to be moved, holes to 
be chafed in them, or any vibration to exist. 

Q, After the pipe work is applied, what should 
be done ? 

A. It should be thoroughly tested under full press- 
ure, and the leaks detected by the use of soapsuds. 

Q. After the pipe is tested, what should be done f 

A. It should be painted with a rust-proof paint and 
one, if possible, that will not be affected by salt water 
dripping from refrigerator cars or by the acid in soft 
coal. 

Q, Why is larger pipe used on freight than on 
passenger cars ? 

A. Because on a long freight train a sudden reduc- 
tion will travel through the large pipe more quickly, as 
the larger the pipe the less the friction exerted to the 
passage of the air. 

Q. Is there any other reason ? 

A. Yes ; in emergency, with quick-action triples air 
from the train line is put into the brake cylinder ; a 
freight car being shorter than a passenger car, the larger 
pipe makes the volume of air in the train pipe more 
nearly equal to that in the smaller pipe used on the 
longer passenger cars. 



THE M. C. B. RULES. 

The following was taken from the '99 M. C. B. Rules 
of Interchange as applying particularly to air brakes : 



Delivering 
Company 
responsible. 



Owners ' 

responsibility 



Sec. I. Defect cards shall not be required for 
defects for which owners are responsible, except 
for missing material on cars offered in interchange, 
as provided for in Section 32 of Rule 3 ; neither 
shall they be required of the delivering road for 
improper repairs that were not made by it, with 
the exception of the cases provided for in Sections 
24, 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37 of Rule 3. 

DEFECTS OF BRAKES WHICH JUSTIFY REPAIRS. 

Sec. 22. Defective, missing or worn out parts 
of brakes which have failed under fair usage, 
except missing material on cars offered in inter- 
change. 

Sec. 23. Cylinder or triple valve of air-brake 
cars not cleaned and oiled within twelve months 
and the date of the last cleaning and oiling 
marked on the brake cylinder with white paint. 

Sec 24. If I -inch hose and fittings are found 
on I >|^-inch train pipe. 

Sec. 25. Missing air-brake hose and fittings, 
angle cocks, cut-out cocks, triple valves, release 
valves and pressure-retaining valves. 

Sec. 26. Damage to any part of the brake appa- 
. ratus caused by unfair usage, derailment or acci- 
dent. 

Sec. 27, If the car has air-signal pipes or air- 
brake pipes, but no air brakes, the hose and coup- 
lings on the car are at owner's risk, unless the car 
is stenciled that it is so equipped. 



Thk M. C. B. Rules. 



199 



IMPROPER REPAIRS. 

Sec. 38. Any company making improper re- 
pairs is solely responsible to the owners, with the 
exception of the cases provided for in Sections 24, 
33> 34, 35, 36 and 37 of Rule 3. 

The company making such improper repairs 
shall place upon the car at the time and place that 
the work is done, an M. C. B. defect card, which 
card shall state the wrong material used. 

RULE 4. 

Sec. 15. In replacing air-brake hose on foreign 
cars for which bills are made, new hose must be 
used. 

RULE 5. 

Sec. 4. Bills may be rendered against car 
owners for the labor only of replacing couplers, 
drawbars, brake beams (including their attach- 
ments, such as shoes, heads, jaws and hangers), 
brake levers, top and bottom brake rods that have 
been lost on the line of the company making the 
repairs. Drawbar springs, followers and yokes 
may be included in the above, provided they have 
heen lost with the drawsbars or couplers. 

Sec. 10. Bills for repairs made under these 
rules and for material furnished shall be in con- 
formity with schedules of prices and credits for 
the articles enumerated below : 



Material. 



Charge. Credit. 



Air-brake hose, i34 inch, complete with fit- 
tings applied 

Air-brake hose, i}4 inch, credit for fittings 
for same 

Air-brake hose, i inch, complete with fit- 
tings applied 

Air-brake hose, i inch, credit for fittings for 
same 

Bolts, nuts, and forgings, finished, per lb. . . 

Brake shoes applied ; no credit for scrap. 

Castings, rough iron per lb, 

" " malleable iron 

" " steel.. 

Chain 

Pipe, % inch per ft 

" I ^ inch 



■30 



■ OiVz 

•05 



Air-Brake Catechism. 

Sec. 12. In rendering bills for owner's defects, 
the following should be observed : 

No credit for scrap and no charge for labor 
shall be allowed in renewing brake shoes. 

Sec. 19. The following table shows the num- 
ber of hours which may be charged for labor in 
doing various items of work enumerated, which 
includes all work necessary to complete each item 
of repairs, except in so far as labor is already 
included in charging for materials : 





Ordinary 
Cars. 


Refrigerator 
Cars. 




Hrs. 


Charge 

for 1 

I,abor. 

1 


Hrs. 


Charge 

for 
I.abor. 


Brake beam, one, replaced 

Brake beam, one, metal, black- 


2 


$0 40 
.40 


2 
2 


I0.40 







Sec. 21. The following table shows the labor 
charges allowable, in cents, for the items named 
in air-brake work : 



Angle cock, renewing 5 

Angle cock, handle, renewing 5 

Coupling, dummy, applying 5 

Cut-out cock, renewing 15 

Cut-out cock, handle, renewing 5 

Cylinder body or reservoir, or both, renewing 25 

Cylinder cleaned and oiled 

Cylinder and reservoir, tightening when loose 

Cylinder release spring, renewing 

Cylinder gasket, renewing 

Check valve case, renewing 

Check valve case gasket 

Gasket, coupling, renewing 

Pipe, renewing one section 

Pipe, securing to body 

Pipe nipple on end of train pipe renewed 

Piston, renewing . . 

Piston-packing leather, renewing 

Pressure-retaining valve, repairing 

Release valve, repairing 

Release valve rod, repairing — 

strainer, renewing 

Triple slide valve, repairing 

Triple emergency valve seat, repairing 

Triple valve gasket, renewing 

Triple valve cleaned and oiled 



The M. C. B. Rui.es. 2( 

Sec. 22. The settlement prices of new eight- 
wheel cars shall be as follows, with an addition 
of $36 for each car equipped with air brakes. The 
road destroying a car with air brakes may elect 
to return the air-brake apparatus, including such 
attachments as are usually furnished by the air 
brake manufacturer, complete and in good con- 
dition. 

Sec. 23. Depreciation due to age shall be 
estimated at six per cent, per annum upon the 
yearly depreciated value of the bodies and trucks 
only ; provided, however, that allowances for 
depreciation shall in no case exceed sixty per cent. 
of the value new. The amount, $36, for air 
brakes shall not be subject to any depreciation. 

PASSENGER CAR INTERCHANGE AIR BRAKES. 

5. Brakes must be in perfect working order 
(adjustment based on seventy pounds as the initial 
pressure), with a piston travel of not less than 5 
inches, nor more than 8 inches. , 



BRAKING POWER AND I.EVBRAGE. 

Q. What is meant by bi^ a king power ? 
A. The force applied by the shoes against the 
wheels to stop the motion of a car. 

Q. What is meant by the percentage of braking 
power f 

A. The total brake-shoe pressure as compared to the 
light weight of the car. The percentage is found by 
dividing the total braking power by the light weight of 
a car. 

Q. What per cent of the weight of a car is used 
as braking power on a freight car f 

A. Usually about seventy per cent or seven-tenths 
of the light weight of the car. 

Q. On a passenger car ? 

A. Usually ninety per cent or nine-tenths of the 
light weight of the car, excepting with the high-speed 
brake. 

Q. Can these percentages be used if the car has. 
two six-wheel trucks, and only two pairs of wheels 
on each car are braked ? 

A. No ; the percentages given refer to a certain per 
cent of the total weight on the rail of the braked 
wheels. 

Q, What per cent of braking power is used in 
designing driver brakes ? 



Braking Power and Leverage. 203 

A. Usually seventy-five per cent or three- fourths of 
the weight on the drivers when the engine is ready for 
the road. 

Q. What per cent of braking power is used on 
tenders ? 

A. Usually one hundred per cent. 

Q. Why is a larger per cent of braking power 
used on tenders than on enp-ines or cars ? 



A. Because tenders are practically always loaded. 

Q. How were these percentages determined on as 
safe? 

A. By actual tests in the different kinds of service. 

Q. What brake-cylinder pressure is used in fig- 
2iring the braking power with the different sizes of 
cylinders ? 

A. Sixty pounds where using quick-action triples, 
and fifty pounds with the plain triples are figured as the 
cylinder pressure when the brakes are full set. 

This does not refer to the quick-action triple as used 
with the reinforced brake. 

Q. How do we calculate the force acting on the 
p2tsh rod due to the pressure in the cylinder acting 
on tJiepiston f 

A. Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself; the 
product by the decimal .7854, and this last product by 
the pressure in the brake cylinder. 

Q. What force would act on the push rod of an 
S-inch cylinder using a quick-action triple ? 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 60 = 3015, usually figured as 
3000 pounds. 

Q. With a plain triple ? 



204 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 50 = 2513, usually figured as 
2500 pounds. 

Q. Explain the difference in the percentage of 
braking power of a freight car lights and the same 
car when loaded to its full capacity. 

A. Seventy per cent of the liglit weight of a freight 
car is considered safe braking power. 

If the light weight of a freight car is 25,000 pounds^ 
it is given 17,500 pounds braking power. If the capac- 
ity of the car is 60,000 pounds, when loaded to its full 
capacity the total weight of the car and contents is 25,- 
000 + 60,000, or 85,000 pounds, but we have only the 
brake-shoe pressure to stop the car loaded that is used 
when it is light. In emergency, we get about sixty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder and have seventy 
per cent braking power with a light car, but with the 
car loaded, when the brakes are set in emergency, the 
braking power is only twenty and one-half per cent of 
the total weight of this car. 

In ordinary service application we obtain about fifty 
pounds pressure in the brake cylinder. This reduces 
the maximum braking power one-sixth, so that we use 
fifty-eight per cent braking power when the car is light, 
but when the car is loaded, the percentage of braking 
power to the total weight of the car and contents is only 
seventeen per cent. 

Q. How is the percentage of braking power of a 
passenger car affected by its load ? 

A. Not very much, because ninety per cent of the 
light weight of the car is used as braking power, and 
when loaded, the additional weight is seldom as much as 
10,000 pounds. 

Q. What forces are figured as acting at the push 
rod with the cliff erent sized cylinders, the cylinder 
pressttre being figured at fifty pounds iii service and 



Braking Power and Leveragk. 



205 



sixty in emergency with the quick-action ti^iple, and 
fifty pou7ids with the plain triple in either service 



or emergency / 

A. Service application : 

6 in. 8 in. 10 in. 12 in. 

1400 2500 4000 5600 

Emergency application : 
1700 3000 4700 6800 



14 m. 
7700 

9200 



By using tlie following cuts and formulae, the brak- 
ing power on a car with any kind of leverage may be 
figured. 




LEVER OF 1st KIND 
Fig. 33. 




FORMULA 



Fxb 
W 



. Wxa 



b=' 



Wxj 



Fig. 34.— L:^vkr of ist Kind. 

There are three classes of levers : 

I. When the fulcrum c (Figs. 33 and 34) is between 
the force F and the weight W. 

II. When the weight W (Figs. 35 and 36) is between 
the force F and the fulcrum c. 



2o6 Air-Brake Catechism. 

III. When the force F (Pigs. 37 and 38) is between 
the weight W and the fulcrum c. 

Figs. 33 and 34 represent a lever of the first class. 

Q. What brake-shoe pressure JV zvill resttlt 
with a force F = 2000 pottnds, b = 16 inches, 
a =^ 8 inches ? 

. Txr F X b ,Tr 2000 X 16 TTr 

A. W= or W= — ^ or TF=4ooo 

a 8 

pounds. 

The forces W and F act in the same direction on the 

levers, and the force at c acts on the lever in an opposite 

direction from both and must be equal to their sum, or 

6000 pounds. 

Q. What is the distance a if F =^ 2000, b =^ 16 
inches, and W = ^000 ? 

Fxb , . . 

A. a ^= — -^jy- ; substituting values, 
W 

2000 X 16 o • 1 

a = or a = 8 inches. 

4000 

Q. What is the force F, when W = 4000, a = 
8 inches, and b =^ 16 inches ? 

A. i^= — - — ; substituting values, 

^ 4000 X 8 „ , 

-r = ^ or i^ == 2000 pounds. 

16 

Q^ How do we find b if W = zfooo pounds ^ 
F = 2000 pounds, and a =^ 8 inches ? 

. , W X a , . . 
A. = — ; substituting values, 



b = 



4000 X 8 , ^ • -u 
or 6 = 16 inches. 



Braking Power and Lkverage. 



207 



Figs. 35 and ^6 represent levers of the second class 
witti the weight between the fulcrum c and the force F. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, a = 8 inches, d = 
16 inches, and 6 = a + c?, or 24 inches. 




LEVER OF 2nd KllMD 
Fig. 35. 

Q. What is W? 

A. W= — '- ; substituting values, 

TF= — 1 or TF= 6000 pounds. 




w= 



FORMULAE. 



, Fxb. 



_Wxa 



Wxa 

F 



Fig. 36. — Lever of 2nd Kind. 

In this class of levers we see that the forces F and W 
act in opposite directions on the lever, and the force ex- 
erted at c will be equal to the difference between F and 
ir, or 4000 pounds. 

We may compute values for a^ F or 6, as was illus- 
trated in the first class of levers, if we know the values 
of the other three. 



2o8 



Air- Brake Catechism. 



Figs. 37 and 38 represent the third class of lever with 
the force F exerted between the weight W and the 
fulcrum c. 

Assume that F = 2000 pounds, 6=8 inches, 
d ^ 16 inches, a = b -\- d^ or 24. 



b -^ 





LEVER OF 3rd KIND 
Fig. 37. 



W=- 



FORMULA 
Fx b 



F — Wxa 

b 



Fig. 38.— Lkver of 3RD kind. 
Q. What is W? 

F X b 



Fxb 
W 



_W X a 



A. W= 



; substituting values, 



^^^ 2000 X 8 ur—^^ro -1 

g^=^ or kK — 666t pounds. 

24 

W and F act in opposite directions on the lever in 
this case, and the force exerted at the fulcrum c will be 
equal to the difference between i^ and TFor^inthis case, 
I333F pounds. 



Braking Power and IvEveragk. 



209 



The other three formulae may be used to find the 
value of a, F, or b when the other three values are 
known, as already shown. 

Besides speaking of levers as first, second, and third 
class, they are known by their proportions as i to i, 2 
to I, 2 J to I, etc., according to the amount the force 
F is raised or diminished, due to the class and propor- 
tions of the levers employed. 

To find the proportion of a lever of the first class, 
divide the distance of the fulcrum c to the force F by 
the distance from the fulcrum c to the weight W; or, re- 
ferring to Fig. 33, it would be : 

6^-aori6^8 = 2. This proportion of lever 
would be called a 2 to i lever. 

The force F is multiplied by 2 at W. 

In the second class, or Fig. 35, the proportion of 
the lever would be represented by: b ~ a or 24. ~ S = 
3 , or a 3 to I lever. 

In the third class, or Fig. 37, the proportion of the 
lever 'would be represented by: 6 ^ a or 8 -^ 24 = i, 
or a J to I lever, in which case the porportion and class 
of levers reduces the force 3 to i instead of increasing it. 




HODGE SYSTEM 



Fig, 39. 



Having studied the classes of levers, we will now 



2IO Air-Brakk Catkchism. 

make a practical application of their use in figuring the 
proportion of the levers to be applied to a car of given 
weight. 

We wish to design a brake for a passenger car, the 
weight of which is 60,000 pounds, and use the Hodge 
system of levers as shown in the sketch. 

Ninety per cent or nine-tenths of 60,000 pounds is 
54,000 pounds. 54,000 pounds will be the safe braking 
power to apply to the wheels of a passenger car weigh- 
ing 60,000 pounds. 

54,000 -^ 4 = 13,500, or the amount of braking 
power to be developed at each brake beam. 

The length of the truck levers has to be determined 
from the truck construction. We will suppose the di- 
mensions to be — long end, 28 inches ; short end, 7 inches. 

The truck levers are of the second class and substitut- 
ing the values in the formula (Fig. 36). 

F = or i^ = -^1^ — ^U- or F ^ 2700 

^ 35 

That is, to get a power W of 13,500 pounds against 
the brake beam, a force of 2700 pounds is necessary at 
the top of the live truck lever. 

The forces F and W act on the live lever in opposite 
directions, so the force acting at fulcrum c will be 
13,500 — 2700 = 10,800. This power is transmitted to 
the bottom of the dead lever, which is of the same class 
as the live lever ; but the force F is applied at the bot^ 
torn instead of the top of the lever. - 

We have from Fig. 36 : 

Tjr F X b Tj-^ 10,800 X ^O jjT 

W = or W= — ^ ^- or M/= i^.^^oo 

a 24 ^'^ 

So that, with a force of 2700 pounds acting at the top 
of the live lever of the dimensions given, a power W of 
13,500 pounds is developed at each truck, brake beam. 



Braking Power and Leverage. 211 

The dead truck lever need not be of the same length 
as the live lever, but the proportions between the holes 
must be the same in each. 

The force of 2700 pounds that acts on the top of the 
live lever also acts at X, the end of the floating lever, 
and we must now determine what force must act on the 
rod that connects the end of the cylinder lever with the 
floating lever. 

This rod is connected at the middle of the floating 
lever, and the power at this point must be sufficient to 
develop a force of 2 700 pounds at each end of the float- 
ing lever. 

The force exerted at the middle must be 2 X 2700 or 
5400 pounds, as half of this amount is given to each end 
of the floating lever. 

This 5400 pounds acting at the center of the floating 
lever must also act at the end of the cylinder lever, 
being connected directly with ito 

What we now wish to determine is, with any desired 
length over all, how must the holes be spaced in the 
cylinder lever that the pressure acting on the push rod 
will produce a force of 5400 pounds at the outer end of 
the cylinder lever. 

A 12-inch cylinder is recommended by the Westing- 
house Company to be used with this weight of car. The 
brake set in emergency with a 12-inch cylinder gives 
us a push at the piston rod of 6800 pounds. We will 
suppose the distance between the outside holes of the 
cylinder lever to be 30 inches. 

The following rule will enable us to locate the mid- 
dle hole in the cylinder lever to which the tie rod is 
attached. 

Midtiply the force actwg at the piston by the 
length of the lever between the outside holes, ani 



212 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

divide the product by the sum of the forces acting at 
both ends of the cylinder lever. The result will be 
the distance from the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever to the hole to which the connection running to 
the floating lever is attached. 

Applying this rule to our problem we have 
6800 X 30 = 204,000 
6800 + 5400 = 12,200 
204,000 ^7- 12,200 = 16.72 
30 — 16.72 = 13-28 

The distance between the holes at the short end is 
13.28 and the long end 16.72 inches, and, according to 
the rule, the long end is connected to the connection 
running to the floating lever » 

The force exerted at the middle hole of the cylinder 
lever is also communicated to a hole similarly placed in 
the other cylinder lever, so that, using the same levers, 
we will obtain the same braking power on the wheels of 
the other truck. 

In. figuring the levers for the Stevens system of lever- 
age, the power desired at the top of the live lever is 
figured the same as just explained. 

When we know this force, we know that the same 
power has to exist at the outer end of the cylinder lever, 
as the Stevens system has no floating lever. 

This we figure by the rule already given for spacing 
the holes in the cylinder levers. 

To figure the braking power of a car already equipped, 
we start with the force acting on the piston rod and 
work towards the truck levers by the aid of the formulae 
given. 

To use the formulae, first determine the class of lever 
with which we have to deal. 

The foregoing illustrations were a practical applica- 



Braking Power and IvEverage. 213 

tion of the forinulse, in calculating the proportion of 
levers that would give a proper braking power on a car 
of known weight. 

We will now consider a shorter method of calculating 
the proportion of levers for a Hodge and for the Stevens 
systems of leverage for this same car. 

Fig. 39 (page 209) shows the Hodge system of levers. 
If this were a Stevens system, the floating lever would 
not be used, and the other end of the connection to the 
live lever of the truck would connect directly with the 
outer end of the cylinder lever. With the Stevens sys- 
tem the hand-brake connection runs from the brake 
mast direct to the top of the dead lever. 

(i.) To find the total braking power required: 

Subtract 10 per cent, of the weight of the car on the 
wheels to be braked for passenger cars, and 30 per cent, 
for freight cars. 

(2.) To find the leverage required: 

Divide the total braking power required by the total 
pressure on the piston. 

(3.) To find the proportion of tJie brake-beam levers: 

Divide the entire length of the lever by the short end, 
if the truck has a bottom connection ; if it has a middle 
connection, divide the long by the short end. 

(4.) To find the total brake-beam leverage : 

Multiply the proportion of the brake-beam levers by 
two, for the Hodge system, and by four for the Stevens 
system. 

(5.) To find the proportion of the cylinder lever : 

Multiply the whole length of the lever by the required 
leverage and divide the product by the sum of the total 
brake-beam leverage plus the required leverage. 

If the required leverage is greater than the total brake- 



214 Air-Brake Catechism. 

beam leverage, the long end of the lever must go next 
to the cylinder ; if less, the short end goes next to the 
cylinder. 

The dead and live levers may be of different lengths, . 
but must be of the same proportion to develop the same 
braking power. 

EXAMPEE. 

Hodge system of levers, as shown on page 209, also 
the lengths of the truck levers. 

Weight of car, 60,000 lbs. 

A 12-inch cylinder is used with this weight of car. 

A pressure of 6,800 lbs. is developed on a 12-inch 
piston, using a quick-action triple valve. 

(i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 lbs. -^ 6,800 = 7.94, leverage required. 

(3.) 35 ^ 7 = 5, brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 X 2 = 10, total brake-beam leverage. 

Assume the length of the outside holes of the cylinder 
lever to be 30 inches. 

(5-) (30 X 7-94) - (7-94 ^ 10) = 13.28 inches. 
30 — 13.28 = 16.72 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence the short end of the cylinder lever 
connects to the piston. 

Stevens system — same car. 

(i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. 

(2.) 54,000 ^ 6,800 - 7.94, the leverage required. 

(3.) 35 -T- 7 = 5, the brake-beam leverage. 

(4.) 5 X 4 = 20, the total brake-beam leverage. 

The cylinder lever is 30 inches between outside holes. 

(5-) (30 X 7-94) -^ (20 X 7.94) = 8.53 inches. 
30 — 8.53 = 21.47 inches. 

The required leverage is less than the total brake- 
beam leverage, hence, according to the rule, the short 
end of the cylinder lever (8.53 inches) connects to the 
piston. 



SIZES OF CYIvINDERS TO BE USED ON CARS 
AND TENDERS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 

14^' brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
Tveight exceeds 70,000 pounds. 

■ 12" brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
^weight exceeds 50,000 pounds. 

10^' brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light 
Tveight is less than 50,000 pounds. 

6" brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight 
is less than 15,000 pounds. 

8^' brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight 
exceeds 15,000 pounds. 

10^' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight 
exceeds 35,000 pounds. 

8^' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight is 
less than 35,000 pounds. 



AMERICAN BRAKE .LEVERAGE. 

Q. How do you find the braking power on an 
engine equipped with the American equalized brake 
as shown in sketch, page 218 ? 

A. Multiply the cylinder value, or total pusli on the 
piston, by the long lever arm, and divide this product 
by the short lever arm. This result multiplied by 2 
gives the total braking power. 

Q, With the long lever arm 2^ inches long and 
the short arm 5, what braking power would we havey 
using 12-inch cylinders ? 

A. 56,000 pounds. 
Thus : 

5600 X 25 ^ 140,000 

140,000 -^- 5 = 28,000 

28,000 X 2 = 56,000 

Q, If any different design of rigging were used 
than that shown in the sketchy how could the braking 
power be figured ? 

A. First find the power exerted at the bottom of the 
rocker shaft and use this in connection with the cuts 
illustrating the different classes of levers. 

Q. What per cent of the total weight on drivers 
is tcsed as braking power with driver brakes f 

A. Seventy-five per cent of the engine's weight on 
the drivers when ready for the road. 



American Brakk Leverage;. 



217 



Q. What braking power shotild be used on an 
engine whose weight on drivers is go, 666 pounds? 
A. 90,666 X .75 = 68,000 pounds. 

Q. What weight should be on the drivers for 
an engine to have 68,000 pounds braki?ig power ? 
A. 68,000 -r~ .75 = 90,666 pounds. 

Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A 
and D on an engine having two pairs of drivers, to 
give an equal braking power 07i each wheel? 

A, The middle hole in A should be equidistant 
from the two outside ones. The hole in the lever at D 
should be so as to have the connection attached at h 
stand about parallel with the track. The corresponding 
hole h at the other end of the lever B must be placed the 
same distance from the other end. 




ABC 
Fig. 40.— American Equawzkd Brake;. 



Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A, 
B, and D, if on a mogul or engine having three 
pairs of drivers ? 

A. The distance e, lever A^ should be one-half the 
distance/. The distance ^, lever B, should be equal to 
hj. The hole ^, lever D, should be the same as on an 
engine having two pairs of drivers. 



2i8 Air-Brakk Catechism. 

Q. How should the holes in the levers A, B, C, 
and D be spaced on a consolidation or engine with 
four pairs of drivers f 

A. The distance e in lever J. should be one- third of/. 
The distance g^ lever B^ should be one-half of h. The 
distance i, lever C, should be equal to j. The hole k in 
lever B should be the same as with an engine having 
two or three pairs of drivers. 



CAM BRAKE. 

The following simple rule to find the braking power 
developed by a cam brake is given by Mr. H. A. 
Wahlert, of the American Brake Company, 

Take two wires and place them between the brake 
shoe and the wheel ; one at the top and one at the 
bottom of the shoe. Apply the brakes fully, and then 
measure the piston travel. Now release the brakes, re- 
charge, and then apply fully again. Measure the piston 
travel again, and note how much more it has increased. 
Divide the additional travel had upon removing the 
wires by the thickness of the wire, and multiply this by 
the value of the cylinder. The result is the braking 
power on each brake shoe. 

Four times this power is the total braking power de- 
veloped on all four shoes. 

EXAMPLE. 

Thickness of wires, ^ inch. 

Piston travel, with wires inserted according to rule, 
3 inches. 

Piston travel, with wires removed, 3 J inches. 

Value of 8-inch cylinder, 2500 pounds. 

3 J inches — 3 inches = J inch. 

J inch -^— ^ inch = 4. 

2500 pounds X 4 = 10,000 pounds on each brake 
shoe. 

10,000 pounds X 4 ^ 40,000 pounds on all four 
brake shoes. 



A FEW PRACTICAIv FORMULA AND RULES 
FOR AIR-BRAKE INSPECTORS. 

(I) Braking power ^ ^^^^^ ^ 

^ Cylinder value * 



(2) 

(3) 



i-incli piston travel Shoe movement for 



Total leverage ' incli of piston travel. 
Slioe wear Total increase of piston travel 

Shoe movement ^ to wear out a set of shoes, 
for I inch of 
piston travel 

Illustration of above Formula. 

Assume : 

Weight of car = 40,000 pounds ; it is to be braked at 
ninety per cent of its weight ; lo-inch cylinder used ; 
shoes I J inches thick. 

Ninety per cent of 40,000 = 36,000 pounds. The 
cylinder value, or push on the piston, of a lo-inch 
cylinder, when the brake is set in emergency with a 
quick-action triple, is 4700 pounds. 

Substituting values in the equations ; 

X X ^6,000 _ ^^ 
(i) ^-^ — —7.66 
4700 

7.66 is the total leverage ; that is, the push of 4700 
pounds on the piston must be multiplied 7.66 times to 
give the proper braking power. 






13 or 



13 



7.66 100 



Formula and Rules. 221 

■^ifo of an incli is tlie distance that the brake shoes will 
move for each inch that the piston travels. 

(^) — — or — ^ = II. S or iiA 

II J inches is the distance the piston travel would 
have to increase to wear out a set of shoes i J inches 
thick. 

To find the distance in which a train should be 
stopped, all other things being equal, the distance and 
speed of any one stop being known : 

J^ule : Multiply the known distance by the square 
of the speed for which proportionate distance is de- 
sired, and divide the product by the square of the 
speed at which know7i stop was made. 

For example : 

If a train at a speed of thirty miles per hour was 
stopped in two hundred feet, in what distance should it be 
stopped at a speed of fifty miles per hour ? 

Square of 30 = 30 X 30 = 900. 
Square of 50 = 50 X 50 = 2500. 

2500 X 200 ^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
900 

To find the area of a piston : 

Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself^ and 
this product by the decimal ^yS ^4. 

Example : 

What is the area of an 8-inch piston? 

8'^ X 8 := 64 sq. in. 

64 sqo in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 



222 Air-Brake Catechism. 

50.26 square inclies is the area of tlie piston ; that is. 
the number of square inches in a circle 8 inches in 
diameter. 

To find the volume or cubical contents of a cylinder : 

Multiply the diameter of the cylinder by itself, 
this product by the decimal .yS^^y and this prodiict 
by the length of the cylinder. 

Example : 

What is the volume of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter 
and one foot long? 

8'' X 8 = 64 sq. in. 

64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 

50.26 sq. in. X 12 = 603.12 cu. in. 

To find the pressure at which an auxiliary and brake 
cylinder will equalize with a full service application of 
the brake using an initial pressure of seventy pounds in 
the train line and auxiliary : 

Multit>ly the capacity of the auxiliary in cubic 
inches Oy eighty-five pounds {seventy pounds train- 
able pressure plus fifteen poimds atmospheric press- 
ure), and divide the product by the co^nbined ccipacity 
of the axillary and brake cylinder. The quotient 
will be., approximately, the pressure plus fifteen 
pounds atinospheric pressure. This is not absolutely 
correct, as it does not take into account the clearance 
in the cylinder back of the piston with the brake 
released. This usually corresponds to about i inch 
of piston travel. 

Example : 

Capacity of freight auxiliary reservoir = 1625 cu. in. 
Capacity of 8-inch brake cylinder with 8-inch piston 
travel = 400 cu. in. 



FoRMUL.n AND RUI.ES. 223 

1625 X 85 = 138,125 138,125 ^ (1625 + 400) ^ 68 
68 lbs. — 15 = 53 lbs. 
Fifty- three pounds is tlie pressure obtained in the 
auxiliary and brake cylinder with the brake full set in 
service. 



INCREASED BRAKE EFFICIENCY FOR 
HEAVY FREIGHT TRAINS. 

Q. What does Plate C represent ? 

A. It shows a slight change in the regular high-speed 
brake equipment 

Q. What is the only difference ? 

A. In the engine equipment for the high-speed brake, 
the governor pipe containing the one-quarter inch cut- 
out cock connects with the pipe running to the other . 
governor, as shown by the dotted lines. 

Q. What is the object of this special equipment ? 

A. It is designed for special use on roads having 
heavy grades and handling loads, such as ore, one way, 
and light cars the other. 

Q. What special advantage is gained ? 

A. By using two sets of pump and train-line gov- 
ernors, 70 or 90 pounds can be used on the train line, 
and 90 or no pounds can be used on the main reservoir. 

Q. Would there not be danger of sliding wheels if 90 
pounds were used as train line pressure f 

A. If used on light cars, yes ; but if used on heavily 
loaded cars there would be no danger, as the braking 
power is usually 70 per cent, of the light weight of the 
car, and when a car is loaded to its full capacity, the 
percentage of braking power, as compared with the 
combined weight of the car and its contents, is much 
smaller than this, even when using a train line pressure 
of 90 pounds. 



Plate C. 

SHOWING INCREASED BRAKE EFFICIENCY FOR HEAVY FREIGHT TRAINS. 
This Plate also Shows the High Speed Brake Equipment, the only Difference being that Pipe A is Changed as Shown bv the Dotted Lines. 

L 




Increased Brake Efficiency for Trains. 225 

Q. How much more powerful would a brake be when 
using a train line pressure of 90 pounds as compared 
'with 70? 

A. Approximately 25 per cent. 

Q. With the cocks as shown in Plate C, which gov- 
ernors arc operative ? 

A. The 90-pound pump governor and the 70-pound 
feed. valve or train-line governor. 

Q. What is the object of running pipe A to the feed 
valve bracket chamber instead of in the manner adopted 
with the high-speed brake, as shown by the dotted lines f 

A. The feed-valve bracket chamber, into which pipe 
A connects, has main reservoir pressure in it, as is 
shown. The 90-pound governor being cut in, the pump 
will be stopped as soon as the main reservoir pressure 
reaches 90 pounds. If the brakes are applied and the 
brake valve is placed on lap position, no more air can 
reach the feed-valve bracket, and thence to the governor 
to keep the steam valve shut and the pump stopped, and 
the pump will continue to work until main reservoir 
pressure reaches no pounds, at which time the other 
governor, always connected with main reservoir pres- 
sure, as shown, stops the pump. 

Q. What benefit is derived from this device when the 
y 0-pound train line and go-pound pump governors are cut 
in? 

A. With the brake valve in running position, the 
pump does not have to work against a higher pressure 
than 90 pounds, but just as soon as the brakes are 
applied, the pump raises the pressure in the main reser- 
voir to no pounds, which pressure is very helpful to 
insure a quick release on a long train and quickly 
recharge the auxiliaries. 

Q. What would be done in case the cars were all 



226 Air-Brake Catechism. 

heavily loaded and it was desired to use a train line pres- 
sure of go pounds and a main reservoir pressure of no 
pounds ? 

A. The reversing cock handle would be moved so as 
to cut out the 70-pound train line governor and cut in 
the 90-pound train line governor. The one-quarter inch 
cut-out cock would be turned so as to cut out the 90- 
pound pump governor. 

Q. Would it be safe to use the go-pound train-line pres- 
sure when there were air brakes en both light and loaded 
cars in operation in the same train ? 

A. No ; in all probability the wheels on the light 
cars would be slid. 

Q. When using a go-pound train-line pressure, is the 
same train-line reduction necessary to apply the brakes in 
full as is used with a jo-pound train-line pressure ? 

A. No ; a heavier reduction would be necessary. 

Q. How '^nuch of a train-line reduction would equalize 
the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures, using an initial 
pressure of go pounds ? 

A. About 27 pounds, if the piston travel was about 
eight inches. 

Q. Why are safety valves placed upon the tender^ 
driver, and truck brakes ? 

A. So as to allow all pressure over 50 pounds to 
escape to the atmosphere. Experience shows that over- 
heating of tires is likely to ensue if a greater pressure 
than this is used on the tender, driver or truck brakes. 

Q. What is best to use on the engine if the grade is 
very long and heavy ? 

A. A water brake. With this brake no heating of 
tires is produced, as the braking is done with the pistons 
in the main cylinders. 



MR-BRAKE RECORDING GAGES. 

Q. What is an air-brake recording gage ? 

A. It is a mechanism by means of which lines are 
traced upon a chart. An examination of these lines will 
tell exactly how the brakes have been manipulated by 
the engineer. 

Q, What causes the lines to be traced upon the chart ? 

A. The contrivance has an arm containing a pen 
which is raised or lowered as the pressure fluctuates in 
the place to which the gage is piped. As the pen and 
chart move, a line is traced showing the variation of the 
pressure. 

Q. What causes the chart to move ? 

A. It is connected with a clock movement, by the 
adjustment of which the movement of the chart is 
controlled. 

Q. To what else is the recording gage similar ? 

A. To a steam indicator ; but in that case steam 
instead of air causes the pen to rise or lower as the 
pressure changes, and the movement of the main steam 
piston imparts a movement to the indicator drum upon 
which paper is fastened, and upon which a line is traced 
by a pen or pencil. 

Q. To zvJiat part of tJie air brake system is the recording 
gage piped ? 

A. It may be piped to the train line, the auxiliary 
reservoir, or the brake cylinder. On a passenger train 



228 Air-Brake Catechism. 

the gage is usually placed at the rear of the train, while 
on a freight train it is placed in the caboose. 

Q, Which of these places is preferred f 

A. The train line. So connected, the chart shows 
the fluctuation of pressure when the brakes are applied 
and released, and the exact habits of the engineer are 
shown. 

Q. How many forms of recording gages are there ? 

A. Two ; a revolving gage, the chart of which is 
shown in Fig. 41, and a horizontal gage, a chart from 
which is shown in Fig. 42. 

Q. From tJie record made by a recording gage, what may 
be ascertained f 

A. The amount of train line pressure carried ; the 
correctness of the air gage ; the method employed by the 
engineer in the application and release of the brakes ; 
the position of the brake valve handle in releasing brakes 
and recharging the train ; it is a valuable adjunct in find- 
ing the cause of air brake wrecks or " failures " ; shows 
if the air brake instruction of the road is lived up to ; 
shows how long it takes to recharge with the different 
main reservoirs and pumps on the different engines ; it 
is a valuable aid in discovering the cause of slid flat 
wheels ; it increases the interest of the engineers in air 
brake matters, as their record and skill are shown by the 
lines on the chart ; besides these things, a great deal of 
kindred information may be gleaned by a careful study 
of the charts. 

Q. At ivhat speed do these charts usually move ? 

A. From two and one-quarter to four and one-half 
inches an hour, as desired. Horizontal charts have been 
used at as high a speed as three feet an hour. The speed 
can be adjusted by means of the clock. 



Air-Brakk Recording Gagks. 



229 




Air-Brake Catechism. 



Nnod Ni 3anssaad 



Q. Is there any advantage gained 
from a sloiv or fast movement of the 
paper ? 

A. A slow movement condenses the 
record and does hot require so large a 
chart, while a fast movement uses a 
longer chart, but shows a greater corre- 
sponding amount of detail. If a. slow 
movement is used, and the detail is 
desired at any particular point, such 
as a water crane or milk depot, the 
speed of the paper may be adjusted as 
desired. 

In Fig. 41, the broken line shows 
the path the pen would trace if there 
was a constant pressure of 70 pounds. 
No pressure is represented by the cir- 
cumference of the small circle. 

The figures at the top are a time 
reference, and the figures up and down 
refer to the amount of pressure. 

The distance between the lines run- 
ning up and down represent the dis- 
tance traveled by the train. The chart 
(Fig. 41) shows two records on the 
same run made by two different men. 
A study of the two shows several 
points of interest. 

The best work ' shows on the card 
to the right ; the card at the left shows 
that the train line governor was not 
adjusted properly for a 70 pound train 
line pressure, or else the gage was 
wrong ; the card at the right shows three station stops 
where the engineer made more than a 20 pound train 
line reduction, while the card at the left shows the same 
thing at six s«tations, and at almost every station the 



■ft' 

i 

(._ ^ 



o 
< 

o 

o 
a 

w 

O 
N 

s 

O 






Air-Brakk Recording Gages. 231 

stop was made by two applications of the brake. The 
amount of reduction points very strongly to the use of 
the emergency. 

Fig. 42 shows a record taken from a horizontal record- 
ing gage. 

The horizontal lines represent pressure as indicated, 
and the length of the paper shows the distance. 

The card shows that a train line pressure of 72 pounds 
was used, and that the engineer was in the habit of mak- 
ing too heavy train line reductions. 

In one place the train line pressure was reduced to 18 
pounds, another to 15, another to 8 pounds, and in one 
case all air was taken from the train line. The two 
cases of heavy reduction at the left of the record point 
strongly to the use of the emergency position of the 
brake valve. 

In two places at the right the card shows that in two 
places the engineer released to recharge, but evidently 
did not calculate properly, as both times he started to 
apply the brakes when the train line was only charged 
to 60 pounds. The pressure in the auxiliaries was 
undoubtedly even somewhat less than this. 



SANSOM BELL RINGER. 

Q, For what purpose is port No. i f 

A. Port I is admission port. 

Q. For what purpose is port No. 2 ? 

A. Port 2 is exhaust port. 

Q. For what pjtrpose is hole No. 3 f 

A. Hole 3 is an escape or leak port, so that if taper 
valve leaks after long service, or spring 4 becomes worn 
or weak, pressure would leak out of hole 3, and not ac- 
cumulate on end of taper valve and tend to force valve 
out from seat. 

Q. What purpose does spring No. 4 perform ? 

A. Spring 4 holds taper valve to seat, by pressing: 
against bar 5. 

Q. Hozv is the piston packed? 

A. Piston is packed with cup leather washer 6. 

Q. How is throw or stroke of bell regulated ? 

A. To increase throw of bell, screw nuts No. 7 up 
on the rod 8 ; to decrease throw of bell, screw nuts 7 
down on rod 8. 

Q. What effect ivould be had with a leak iji the valve 
placed in the supply pipe ? 

A. A perfectly tight valve should be used in supply 
pipe ; a small leak in valve wastes air and interferes with 
the good operation of the ringer, by slowly raising pis- 
ton of ringer to such position that, when full pressure 



Sansom Bell Ringer. 




Fig. 43. — " Saxsom " Bkll Ringer. 



234 Air-Brake Catechism. 

is admitted, the piston has not sufficient further distance 
to travel to properly throw the bell, so its momentum 
will force piston to bottom of cylinder, and thereby close 
exhaust opening, and open valve for re-admission of air 
to again force piston to its upper position. 

Q. Explain the operation of the ringer ? 

A. Ringer is operated by admission of air under pis- 
ton, which forces piston upward and carries connecting 




Fig. 44. — Shows the Bell Ringer as Applied to a Bell 
Frame Especially Designed for Use with a Ringer. 

rod attached to crank on bell shaft ; when the arm ex- 
tending on the left of piston has traveled to the nuts 7, 
the plug valve is turned by means of rod 8 until admis- 
sion port is closed, and exhaust port 2 opened, thus 
allowing air in cylinder to escape and the weight of bell 
to force piston to bottom of cylinder. The arm extend- 
ing from left of piston striking the lower nuts on rod 8, 
and closing exhaust and opening admission port as be- 
fore described (during upward stroke), and thereby cans- 



Sansom Bell Ringer. 



^3S 



mg piston to again rise in cylinder and the operation to 
be repeated. 

Q. What trouble may occur to taper valve ? 

A. Spring 4 may wear and not allow valve to pro- 
perly seat itself. In that case, remove bar 5, and place 
a plug of wood about y^ inch thick in the bottom of hole 
that carries spring 5, in this way getting additional com- 
pression on spring to hold taper valve 
to its seat. Get a new spring put in as 
soon as you can. 

Q. Hozu would you proceed if ringer 
were frozen up ? 

A. In winter, from the accumula- 
tion of moisture, should the ports be- 
come clogged from ice, hold torch for 
a moment (while air is turned on) 
under base of ringer, about ports i 
and 2. This is a very rare occurrence. 

Q, Hozu should the Sansom Bell 
Ringer be applied? 

A. The distance from the center 
of crank shaft of bell to the center of 
bolt holes, where ringer is bolted on 
frame, should be not less than 10^ 
inches, and preferably should be about 
12 inches. 

The bell shaft may be any size above 
I inch in diameter, as convenient. 

The adjustment of ringer is made 
by means of the nuts on the 14^ -inch rod connected with 
the plug cock, and extending up through the lug on the 
side of the piston. A very close and satisfactory^ adjust- 
ment can be made with these nuts, and, when the throw 
of bell is just as desired, they can be firmly locked 
together. 




Fig. 45. — Shows 
THE Applica- 
tion OF A BelI/ 
Ringer to an 
Old Bell 
Frame. 



236 Air-Brake Catechism. 

The pipe or connecting rod, extending from the crank 
to the inside of the piston, should be cut off about 3^ 
inch short of touching the bottom of the piston when 
the crank is at its lowest position of throw. 



OCHSE BEIvL RINGER. 

Q. Explain the operation of the OcJise Bell Ringer, 

A. When the bell is at rest, the two small slide 
valves are in their lowest positions. 

As air or steam, whichever is used to operate the 
ringer, passes into the ringer, it finds its way over the 
top of the slide valve, and through an exposed port 
directly underneath the piston. As the air forces the 
piston up, the piston lifts the bell crank, and this in turn 
raises the bell. The piston is connected with the two 
slide valves by a hollow sleeve, as shown in Fig. 46. 
This loose sleeve allows the piston to rise about an 
inch without moving the slide valves, at which time 
a pin in the slotted stem and main piston draws the 
slide valves up. This movement causes one slide valve 
to close the feed port, and the other to open the exhaust 
port at the lower end of the ringer, and allow the pres- 
sure to escape to the atmosphere. 

The bell is raised until the pressure is exhausted, 
when the weight of the bell forces the piston and slide 
valves down, and this downward movement of the slide 
valves closes the exhaust and opens the feed port, when 
the piston is again forced upward after the momentum 
of the bell has swung it over its dead center. 

Q. What would be the first thing to do with a ringer 
that zuould not operate ? 

A. Increase the opening of the feed port by screwing 
down on the adjusting pipe. 



238 



Air-Brake Catechism. 





"^iG. 46. — OcHSE Bell. Ringer. 



OcHSE Beli. Ringer. 



239 




Fig. 47. — OcHSE Bell Ringer. 



240 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. What should be done after screwing down on the 
adjusting pipe if the ringer still refuses to respond ? 

A. Disconnect the supply pipe and be sure that air 
issues from the pipe when the throttle valve is opened. 

Q. What shoidd be done if the bell does not swing suffi- 
ciently high ? 

A. Screw down on the adjusting pipe to open the 
feed port farther. 

Q. What shoidd be done if the bell szuings too high ? 

A. Screw up on the adjusting pipe so as to decrease 
the air supply. 

Q. What should be done with a ringer that is sluggish 
and is not adjusted readily ? 

A. Remove the spring between the slide valves and 
replace it with a new one. This trouble is very un- 
usual. 

Q. Is a ringer likely to freeze in winter ? 

A. This depends upon where the ringer is located. 
If the bell bracket is bolted to the boiler, the ringer 
should get sufhcient heat to keep it free from ice. If 
the main reservoir is kept well drained, there should 
be no trouble from water working into a ringer and 
freezing. 

Q. What zvould happen if the arm of the bell ringer 
should point straight down when the bell is at rest ? 

A. The ringer would be on its dead center and could 
not start. The crank should be put on to stand as 
shown in the cut. 

Q. How much oil does a bell ringer require ? 

A. Very little if air is used, but regularly where 
steam is used. 



SANDERS. 

Q. How docs the Leach " Z? " sandcr operate f 

A. The sand is carried by means of pipes to traps 
beneath running board, from which traps the sand is 
forced through the ^-inch delivery pipes to the rail by 
air pressure. 

Q. How can the amount of sand delivered by this de- 
vice be diminished or increased f 

A. To regulate the amount of sand delivered, in- 
crease or decrease distance "A" (Fig. 49) by loosening 
jamb nut "C," and moving adjusting tube "D," in or 
out. The greater the clearance "A," the greater the 
sand delivery. Care should be taken to have nozzles on 
opposite sides of engine adjusted alike. 

Q, What are the chief drawbacks to the successful oper- 
ation of a pneuTnatic sander ? 

A. Unscreened sand or sand which has not been 
screened of all coarse and foreign matter is the chief 
cause of trouble with pneumatic sanders. WET sand 

CANNOT BK USKD WITH A PNEUMATIC SANDER. 

Q. Why are \-inch delivery pipes generally used with 
pneumatic sanders ? 

A. Three-quarter inch delivery pipes are used so as 
to " squirt " the sand direct to point of contact between 
driving wheel and rail, and they should always be kept 
in such a position at bottom ends as to accomplish above 
results. 



242 



Air-Brake Catechism. 




Sanders. 



243 




244 Air-Brake Catechism. 

Q. For what purpose is small thumb screw ^^ F*^ {F^S^ 
49) used with the Leach air nozzle ? 

A. It is placed opposite small ;3%-inch air choke so as 
to enable the air choke to be cleaned out without dis- 
connecting any of the pipes. 

Q. What is the object of placing small check valve ^' B '^ 
{Fig. 49) between the sand trap and air choke of the 
Leach air nozzle ? 

A. It is placed there to prevent the sand from work- 
ing back and into the air choke. 

Q. What is the cause of sand becoming moist and wet 
in the traps on this device ? 

A. The sand becomes wet in the traps from two 
causes : the unions in the sand pipes are not tight ; or in 
some cases, moisture in these traps is caused by the 
main reservoir not being drained regularly, and water is 
carried from the air pipes into the traps when the sand 
is working. 

Q. What are the advantages of the Leach '' Z> " 
Sander ? 

A. It is outside of the sand box, accessible at all 
times for inspection and when making repairs, and any 
engineman or shopman can, at a glance, understand its 
operation. The resistance of the column of sand always 
above trap prevents air pressure from escaping up 
through sand box, and therefore a high pressure is 
available through discharge pipes for removing obstruc- 
tions at their lower ends. 

The adjustable air nozzle used with this style of device 
can be so adjusted as to regulate the amount of sand dis- 
charged to the rail. This nozzle is fitted with a small 
check valve, preventing air passages from becoming 
plugged with sand. The device is capable of forcing 
sand to both front and back wheels of the locomotive 



Sanders. 



245 




246 



Air-Brakk Catechism. 



from the sand box as usually situated over the front 
drive wheels. 

Q. How does the Leach '' A '^ style of sander {Fig. 50) 
operate f 

A. With this type of device the blast is used simply 



Blast Cap O 



Slip Joint >^ 




Sand Pipe Union. 



Fig. 51.— Leach ♦* B " Sander. 



for economy in the use of sand and for convenience in 
operating. The sand traps are attached to the box in 
the most convenient manner ; the sand is supplied there- 
to through independent outlets from the box, and is dis- 
charofed therefrom into and throuo-h the usual hand 



Sanders, 



247 




248 Air-Brake Catechism, 

lever controlled pipes to the rail, the lever attachments 
being available for use as desired. 

The traps being on the outside of the box, are easily 
applied and maintained, and conveniently located for 
cleaning. 

Q. How does the Leach *' ^ '' sander differ from the 
'''■A'' sander ? 

A. The principle of operation of this device is the 
same as the " A " type, and is only arranged differently 
in order to facilitate its application to old sand boxes. 

Q. How does the ^' She " sander operate f 

A. The operation of the " She " sander is that of a 
syphon and injector. The syphon used in the action of 
this device is especially designed to carry sand from the 
pipes to the rail with great velocity, and uses only a 
small amount of air to accomplish this result, the 
syphon being in the center of sand box, where sand is 
always the driest and least apt to bake. 

Q. Why is a screen placed in the top of sand box with 
the " She " sander ? 

A. So as to prevent pebbles or other foreign matter 
entering the sand box, which would interfere with the 
working of the syphon. 

Q. Is it not a good plan to have sand boxes fitted with 
screens whe7i pneu^natic sander s are used ? 

A. It is a most valuable addition toward the suc- 
cessful operation of pneumatic sanders ; but where there 
are very many engines to be sanded up in a short time, 
it has been found a better plan to screen sand thoroughly 
in the sand house, where larger screens can be used and 
the sand screened much more speedily. 



INDEX. 



See also additional index on page 254. 
An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



Air brake, straight 17, 18 

Air brake, Westinghouse Automat- 
ic 18,21 

Air brakes used with handbrakes, 

186, 187 

Air brakes vs. hand brakes . . .181, 194 

American brake leverage 216-318 

American brake, power developed, 217 
American brake, spacing of lever 
holes 218,219 

* American equalized brake 218 

Application of brake 184 

Area of piston, rule 222 

Automatic air brake, Westing- 
house 18, 21 

Auxiliary, bleeding 168 

Auxiliary, charging 27, 31, 32 

Auxiliary leaks 47 

Auxiliary not charged 167 

Auxiliary use 53 

Bleeding auxiliary 168 

Brake cylinder pressure 56 59 

Brake cylinder pressure, emer- 
gency. . . • . . ..... .58-60 

Brake cylinder pressure table 57 

Brake inoperative 167 

Brake stuck 168, 170, 179, 187 

* Brake valve, D 8 106, llO, 111 

Brake valve, D 8, bottom view of 

rotary 112 

Brake valve, D 8, emergency posi- 
tion 112 

:^rake valve , D 8, excess pressure, 

115,116 

Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure 

spring 116 

Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure 

valve 116, 117 

Brake valve, D 8, full release posi- 
tion 107 

Brake valve, D 8, lap position 109 

Brake valve, D 8, on lap, main 

reservoir pressure 116, 117 

Brake valve, D 8, operation . . . .106-113 
Brake valve, D 8,pipe connections, 107 
Brake valve, D 8, positions, 107-109,112 
Brake valve, D 8, pressure adjust- 
ment 115,116 

Brake valve, D 8, pump governor.. 116 
Brake valve, D 8,rotaryleaking,115, 117 
Brake valve, D 8, running posi- 
tion 108, 109 

Brake valve, D 8, service po,s;i- 
tion 109, 111 



PAGE 

Brake valve, D 8, slot in rotary 

seat Hi, 113 

Brake valve, D 8, troubles 114-117 

Brake valve, D 8, with pump gover- 
nor 1('9 

Brake valve, F 6 Sl-105 

Brake valve, F 6, adjustment of 

pump governor 87 

Brake valve, F 6, and brake valve, 

D 8, comparison 107, 108, 118, 119 

Brake valve, F 6, connections 81 

* Brake valve, F 6 )^2, 84, 86 

Brake valve, F 6, emergency posi- 
tion 91 

Brake valve, F 6, excess pressure, 

94, 95,102 

Brake valve, F 6, lap position 88 

Brake valve, F 6, parts 81 

Brake valve, F 6, positions. .81, 83, 

85, 83, 89, 91 

Brake valve, F 6, release position, 83, 85 
Brake valve, F 6, rotary, bottom 

view 90 

Brake valve, F 6, running position 

85,87 

Brake valve, F 6, service position, 89, 90 

Brake valve, F 6, use 81 

Brake valve, location 80 

Brake valve, reservoir. See Little 
druvi. 

Brake valves, engineer's 79-119 

Brake valves now in use SO 

Braking power 202 

Braking power and leverage.. . .202-220 

Braking power, car light 204 

Braking power, car loaded 204 

Braking power, C5'linder pressure 

used in figuring 203 

Braking power, force on push rod, 

203, 204 

Braking power lost by too heavy 

reductions 176, 177 

Braking power, percentage 202 

Braking power, pei'centages deter- 
mined 203 

Braking power, percentage used 

on freight car 202 

Braking power, percentage used 

on passenger car 202 

Braking power, percentage used 

on tenders... 203 

Braking power, percentage used 

with driver brakes 202, 203, 217 

Braking power, to find weight of 
engine on drivers 218 



250 



Index. 



An asterisk (^) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



PAGE 

Brakes applied from engine in 

testing 172,173 

Brakes applied with rear angle 

cock..... 166 

Brakes, applying, lap valve 180 

Brakes, poor, necessary steps 174 

Brakes released on grades 178, 179 

Brakes, releasing 59-61 

Broken graduating pin 45 

* Bushing, slide valve... 39 

Cam brake 219 

Capacity of pumps 121 

Car discharge valve 145 

* Car discharge valve 147 

Cavity D. See Little drum. 

Charging of auxiliary .27, 31, 32 

Charging train 165, 172 

* Comparative efi&ciency of West- 
inghouse brakes 161 

Cooling of pump 130 

Cut of freight equipment 52 

Cylinder lever 55 

Cylinders, power developed 204, 205 

Cylinders, sizes 215 

I> 8 brake valve. See Brake valve ^ 
D 8. 

D 8 valve, equalizing piston 117 

Dead lever ... 55 

Diaphragm in old style pump 

governor 142 

Discharge valve of pump, stuck. . . 127 
Discharge valves of pump, poor 

seats 128 

Double heading .1S8, 189 

Drain plug 37 

Drip pipe in pump governor 139 

Driver brakes, cut out 187 

Driver brake release using emer- 
gency 182 

Driver brakes, used with reverse 

lever 190-192 

Dry pipe leak 120 

Dry steam 120 

Emergency, brake cylinder press- 
ure 58-60 

Kmergency check valve 36 38 

B^mergency piston 36-38 

Emei-gency port 37, 38 

Emergency position, D 8 brake 

valve 112 

Emergency position, F 6 brake 

valve 91 

Eniergency position of plain 

triple 83 

Emergency used, loss of driver 

brake 182 

Emergency used, loss of tank 

brake 182 

Emergency, use of. . 189, 192 

Emergency valve 36-38, 47-49 

Emergency with service reduc- 
tion 169 



PAGE 

Engine changes necessary for high- 
speed brake 162 

Engineer's brake valve, location.. 80^ 
Engineer's brake valves in use. ... 80 
Engineer's brake valves, West- 

inghouse 79-119 

Engineer's D 8 brake valve. See 

Brake valve ^ D 8. 
Engineer's F 6 brake valve. See 

Brake valve, F6. 
Equalization between auxiliary 

and cylinder, rule 223, 224 

Equalizing piston, D 8 valve.. . 117 

Equalizing piston, will not rise, 

102,103 

Excess pressure 92 

Excess pressure, D 8 brake valve, 

115, 116 

Excess pressure, F 6 brake valve, 

., 94,95,102 

Excess pressure spring, D 8 brake 

valve 116 

Excess pressure valve, D 8 brake 

valve... 116,117 

Exhaust port .37, 38 

Expander ring 51 

K 6 brake valve, leaks 102-105 

F 6 brake valve, troubles 102-105 

F 6 engineer's brake valve. See 

Brake valve, F 6, 

Feed grooves 31, 32, 37, 42 

*Feed valve 94 

Feed valve 93-97 

Feed valve, duty 93 

Feed valve, no excess 94, 95 

Feed valve, operation 93 

Feed valve, removal of. 9T 

Feed valve, troubles 94-97 

Feed valve, when used 93 

♦Freight equipment 52, 

Freight equipment parts 51, 53, 54 

Freight equipment, Westinghouse, 

51-54 

Freight service, main reservoir, 

74, 75, 78: 

Freight train, release of brakes, 

184, 185- 

Frozen hose couplings 169 

Frozen triple 169 

Full release, gauge hands 105 

Full release position, D 8 brake 

valve lOT 

Functions of triple valve 27-34 

Gasket leak, freight equipment. . . 54 

Gasket leak, 9i^-inch pump 131 

Gauge hand indications Ill 

Gauge hands, full release 105 

Gauge hands, movement 114, 115 

Gauge hands, running position, 

105,118 

Graduating nut 37 

Graduating pin, broken 45 

Graduating port 37 



Index. 



251 



An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



Graduating spring 37, 44 

Graduating stem 37 

Graduating valve 24, 25, 37 

Graduating valve leaking 50 

Grooves, feed • 31, 32, 37, 42 

Hand brakes used with air 

brakes 186,187 

Hand brakes vs. air brakes 181, 194 

Heat due to compression 130, 132 

Heating of pump 180 

Heavy reductions at fast speeds,! 85, 186 

High-speed brake 158-162 

High-speed brake from quick- 
action 1 62 

High-speed brake efficiency 158 

High-speed brake on engine 162 

High-speed brake, percentage of 

braking power 158, 159 

*High-speed brake reducing valve, 160 
High-speed brake reducing valve, 

159, 160,162 

High-speed brake, train-line press- 
ure 159 

High-speed brake, use 158 

Hodge lever 5!i 

*Hodge system 209 

Hodge system, short method of 

figuring 214, 215 

Hodge system, to figure levers, 209-212 

Hose couplings frozen 169 

Hose couplings leaking 166, 167 

Hose uncoupling 88 

Hose, use of oil 167 

I^ap position, brakes applying 180 

lyap position, D 8 brake valve 109 

I^ap position, F 6 brake valve 88 

Ivcakage groove 53 

Leak, at train-line exhaust Iii4 

Leak at triple exhaust 47-49 

Leak, dry pipe '. 12J 

Leak from little drum 104, 105 

Leak, gasket of 9J^-inch pump 131 

Leak, hose coupling 166, ] 67 

Leaks, effect in train handling... 173 

Leaks, F 6 brake valve .102-105 

Leaks in auxiliary 47 

Leaks in triple 47 

Leaks on slide valve 46-48 

Leaks on train line, 47, 89, 168, 180, 

181, 188 

Leaky graduating valve 50 

Leaky rotary 102-104 

Leverage, American brake 216-218 

Leverage and braking power . . 202- 220 

Lever, first class 205-206 

Lever proportions 209 

Lever, second class. 207 

Lever, third class 208, 209 

Levers, classes 205, 206 

Little drum 98-101 

*Little drum. 98 

Little drum, leak.. 104, 105 

Little drum, location 98 



PAGE 

Little drum, time of five-pound 

reduction 10 1 

Little drum, use 99 

Live lever 5 > 

Long travel brakes, kicking off. . . 187 

Lubrication of pump 125, 126 

Lubricator, location 121 

Main line governor, troubles ... 94 9T 

Main reservoir 74 78 

Main i-eservoir, capacity 74, 78 

Main reservoir, care of 77 

Main reservoir, in freight service, 

74,75,78 

Main reservoir, in passenger serv- 
ice 74,75,78 

Main reservoir, location 76 

Main reservoir, object 74 

Main reservoir pressure 74 

Main reservoir pressure, D 8 brake 

valve, on lap 116,117 

Main reservoir pressure on signal 

line.. 154-156 

Main reservoir sizes 74-78 

Main reservoir, table of efficiency, 77 

Main reservoir, too small 75 

M. C. B. rules 198-201 

McKee slack adj uster 6S 

* McKee slack adjuster 64 

Moisture in brake system 44 

Oil used in hose 167 

I*acking leather 51 

Packing rings, pump 130 

Parts of freight equipment. . .51, 53, 54 
Passenger service, main reservoir, 

74, 75, .8 

Passenger train, release of brakes, 

183,184 

Percentage of braking power, high- 
speed brake 158,159 

Pin valve in pvxmp governor 140 

Pipe connections, D 8 brake valve, 107 

Piping 196,197 

Piston, emergency 36-38 

Piston, equalizing, will not rise, 

102,103 

Piston in pump governor 140 

Piston lever 55 

Piston sleeve 51 

Piston travel 55-65 

Piston travel, adjustment 55, 63, 65 

Piston travel, car light 62 

Piston travel, car loaded 62 

Piston travel, car running 61, 62 

Piston travel, car standing 61, 62 

Piston travel, determination of. . . 62 
Piston travel, eflfect on pressure, 56-61 

Piston travel, long 63, 65 

Piston travel, proper length 63 64 

Piston travel, rule 221 

Piston travel, short 63, 65 

Piston travel, uneven 59 

Piston travel, variation in 62, 63 



252 



Index. 



An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



PAGE 

* Plain triple 22 

Plain triple 21, 22-26 

Plain triple, emergency position . . 33 

Plain triple, parts 22-24 

Plain triple, service position 32 

Plain triple, use 34 

Preliminary exhaust port, closed.. 105 
Pressure adjustment, D 8 brake 

valve 115.116 

Pressure, black gauge hand 88 

Pressure brake cylinder 56-59 

Pressure excess . . 92 

Pressure governed by piston travel, 

56-61 

Pressure high on train line 117 

Pressure in brake cj'linder, emer- 
gency 53-60 

Pressure, red gauge hand 88 

Pressure, regulation on signal 
line 157 

* Pressure retaining valve 67 

Pressure table, bi-ake cylinder. ... 57 

Proportions of levers 209 

Pump governor, old style.troubles, 

141,143 

Pump governor pin valve. ....... 140 

Pump governor piston 140 

Pump governor relief port 139 

Pump governor slot in stem. . . . 142 
Pump governor -with D 8 brake 

valve 109-116 

Pump, groaning 125 

Pump, heating 130 

Pump, location 131 

Pump lubrication 125, 126 

Pump, packing. 125 

Pump packing rings » 130 

Pump, pounding 126 

Pump receiving valves stuck.. 127, 128 

Pump speed 129 

Pump, starting of 126 

Pump, steam exhaust 131 

Pump, use 120 

Pump valves, stuck,how^ loosened, 128 

Pumps 120-135 

Capacity 121 

6-inch pump 120 

8-inch pump. See Pump, 8-inch. 

914-inch pump 121-132 

914-inch pump, care 125-132 

914-inch pump, gasket leak 131 

914-inch pump, operation. . 121-125 
914-inch pump, Plate B. 

914-inch pump, stopping 129 

9J^-inch pump, troubles . . . .125-132 

914-inch pump, valve lift 130 

Pump, 6-inch 120 

* Pump, 8-inch 133 

Pump, 8-inch 132-135 

Pump, 8-inch, blows of 135 

Pump, 8 -inch, lift of valves 152 

Pump, 8-inch, operation 18^-135 

Pump, 8-inch, troubles 135 

Pump, 914-inch 121-132 

Pump, 914-inch. Plate B. 



PAGE 

Pump, 9J4-inch, care .125-132 

Pump, 914- inch, operation 121-125 

Pump, 914-iiich, stopping 129 

Pump, 914-inch, troubles 125-132 

Pump, 914-inch, valve lift 130 

Pump, cleaning 131 

Pump, cooling 130 

Pump, dancing 130, 131 

Pump discharge valve, stuck 127 

Pump discharge valves,poor seats, 128 
Pump governor, adjustment with 

F 6 valve 87 

Pump governor, % and 1-inch im- 
proved 140 

Pump governor, diaphragm. 142 

Pump governor, drip pipe 139 

* Pump governor, improved 138 

Pump governor, improved, opera- 
tion 137-139 

Pump governor, improved, trou- 
bles 139,140 

Pump governor, location 121 

* Pump governor, old style 141 

Pump governor, old stj'le, opera- 
tion 140, 141, 143 

Pump governors 137-143 

Quick-action triple, advantages... 35 
Quick action changed to high- 
speed brake 162 

*Quick-action tidple 3s 

Quick-action triple in emergency, 37 

Quick-action triple, parts 36-38 

Quick-action triple, strainer. .36, 38, 42 
Quick-action triple,troubles, 41-50, 

89, 40, 42, 43, 44 

Quick-action Westinghouse triple, 
35-40 

Receiving valves of pump, stuck, 

127,128 

Recharging on grades 174 

Reducing valve, high-speed brake, 

159,160,162 

Reductions, loss of power 176, 177 

Reductions of train-line press- 
ure 174-177,181 

Release of brakes on freight 

trains 184,185 

Release of brakes on grades — 178, 179 
Release of bi-akes on passenger 

trains 183, 184 

Release position, F 6 brake valve, • 

83, 85 

Release spring 51 

Release spring, weak . . 169 

Release valve 54 

Releasing brakes 59-61 

Relief port in pump governor — 139 

Retainer, gains made with 71-73 

Retainer, missing 168 

Retainer, table of value 72 

Retainer, testing 69 

Retainer, troubles 69 

Retainer, when put in use 69, 70 



i 



Index. 



253 



An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



PAGE 

♦Retaining valve ... 67 

Retaining valve, location of 66 

Retaining valve, operation 07-69 

Retaining valve, use of.. 70, 71, 1S5, \i^6 
Retaining valve, Westinghouse.. 66-73 

Retaining valve, where used 66 

Reverse lever used with driver 

brakes '...190-192 

Rotary, leaky 102-104 

Rotary of D 8 brake valve, bottom 

view 112 

Rotary of D8 brake valve, leak- 
ing 115, 117 

Rotarv of F 6 valve, bottom view, 90 

Rotary test 103,104 

Rubber-seated valve 36-38, 47-49 

Rule, area of piston 222, 223 

Rule, distance in train stops 222 

Rule, equalization between auxil- 
iary and cj^inder 223, 224 

Rule, piston travel 221 

Rule, shoe movement 221 

Rule, total leverage . 221 

Rule, volume of cylinder 223 

Rules, M. C. B 198-201 

Running position, D 8 brake valve, 

108,109 

Running position, F 6 brake valve, 

85, 87 

Running position, gauge hands, 
105,118 

Service port 37 

Service position, D 8 brake valve, 

109,111 

Service position, F 6 brake valve, 

89,90 

Service position of plain triple 32 

Shoe movement, rule 221 

Signal apparatus on coach 145 

*Signal apparatus on coach 146 

Signal apparatus on engine 144, 145 

*Signal apparatus on engine 144 

Signal cord, use of 150, 151 

Signal, improper response 153-157 

*Signal improved reducing valve, 150 
Signals in testing passenger train, 170 
Signal line, lack of air at car dis- 
charge valve 153 

Signal-line pressure, regulation 

of 157 

Signal-line pressure, testing 156 

Signal line, with main reservoir 

pressure .154-156 

*Signal old style reducing valve . .152 

Signal pipe, lack of air 152, 153 

Signal reducing valves 145-147, 157 

Signal system 144-157 

Signal system, passage of air 148 

Signal system, troubles 152-157 

Signal valve 148-150 

*Signal valve 149 

Signal valve, baggy diaphragm... 154 

Signal valve, location 145 

Signal Kttistle. 147, 148 



PAGE 

*Sigual whistle 151 

Slack adjuster, McKee 63 

*Slack adjuster, McKee 64 

Slide valve 25,26,37 

*Slide valve 39 

*Slide valve bushing 39 

Slide valve leaks 46-48 

Slide-valve spring 37 

Slid wheels 179 

Slot in pump governor stem 142 

Slot in rotary seat, D 8 brake 

valve 112,113 

Speed of pump 129 

Stevens system, short method of 

figuring 214,215 

Stevens system, to figure levers, 212, 213 

Sticky triple 45, 47 

Stops on turntable , 182, 183 

Straight air brake 17, 18 

Strainer, quick-action triple, 36, 88, 42 

Stuck brake 168,170,179,187 

Stuck pump valves, how loosened, 12S 
Sweeney compressor 136 

Taking on cars 186 

Tank brake release using emer- 
gency 182 

Test, train-line leaks 173, 174 

Testing, brakes applied for engine, 

172,173 

Testing retainer. 69 

Testing signal-line pressure 156 

Testing, train-line reduction 172 

Three-way cock. 79, 100, 101 

Total leverage , rule 221 

Train charging 165, 172 

Train handling 171-195 

Train handling, eflfect of leaks. ... 173 
Train handling, initial steps.. 171, 172 

Train inspection 163-170 

Train inspection after charging. . . 165 
Train inspection, initial steps, 

164, 165,172 

Train inspection, necessity of. .. 163 

Train inspection, report 166 

Train inspection, where begun. . . 163 

Train-line check 36-38 

Train-line check spring 36 

Train-line exhaust, flash at 114 

Train-line exhaust leak 104 

Train-line governor 93 97 

*Train-line governor 94 

Train-line governor, duty 98 

Train-line governor, no excess... 94, 95 

Train-line governor, operation 93 

Train-line governor, removal of. . . 9T 

Train-line governor, troubles 94-97 

Train-line governor, when used ... 93 
Train-line leaks,47, 89, 168, 180, 181, 183 
Train-line leaks, how to test for, 

173,174 

Train-line pressure, high 117 

Train-line pressure, high-speed 

brake 159 

Train-line reductions. 174-177, 1«1 



254 



Indkx. 



An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. 



PAGE 

Train-line reduction in testing 172 

Train-line reductions with aid of 

retainers. 1T9, 180 

Train stops, distance figured 222 

Train tests, Westiughouse 194, 195 

Travel, piston £5 65 

Triple exhaust leaks .47-49 

Triple, frozen 169 

Triple leaks 47 

Triple pai-ts, quick-action B6 38 

Triple piston stem 37 

Triple, plain 21, 22-26 

* Triple, plain 22 

Triple, plain, emergency position. . 88 

Triple, plain, parts 22-24 

Triple, plain, service position 32 

Triple, plain, use 34 

Triple, quick- action, advantages. , 35 

* Triple, quick-action 38 

Triple,quick-action,in emergency, 37 

Triple, sticky ;... 45,47 

Triple, Westinghouse quick-action, 

85-40 

Troubles, feed valve 94-97 

Troubles, improved pump gover- 
nor 139, 140 

Troubles of quick-action triple, 

39, 40, 41-50, 42-44 

Troubles, pump governor, old 

style. 141-143 

Troubles, signal system 152-157 

Troubles, train-line governor 94-97 

Troubles, F 6 brake valve 102-105 

Troubles, 8-inch pump 135 

Troubles, D 8 brake valve 114-117 



PAGE 

Troubles, 9i^-inch pump 125-132 

Troubles, with retaining valve h9 

Turntable stops 182, 1S3 

Valve, emergency .36-38, 47 49 

Valve, graduating 24,25 37 

Valve lift, 9V^-inch pump 180 

Valve, rubber seated 36-3S, 47-19 

Valve, slide 25, 26, 37 

Volume of cylinder, rule 228 

"^RTarning port 85 

Water tank stops, passenger train, 

183,184 

Weak release spring 169 

Weight of engine on drivers, to 

find braking power 217, 218 

Westinghouse brakes, comparative 

efficiency 161 

Westinghouse engineer's brake 

valves 79-119 

Westinghouse freight equipment, 

51-54 

Westinghouse high-speed brake, 

158-162 

Westinghouse pumps. 120-135 

Westinghouse pump governors, 

187-143 

Westinghouse retaining valve 66-73 

Westinghouse train tests 194, 195 

Westinghouse whistle signal sj^s- 

tem..., 144-157 

Wheels, slid 179 

Whistle signal systerL- See Signal 

system. 



ADDITIONAL INDEX. 



Increased Brake Efficienc)' for Heav}^ Freight 
Trains, . ... 

* Air-Brake E^ecording Gages, 

*Sansoni Bell Ringer, .... 

*Oclise Bell Ringer, . . , . . 

* Sanders, . o . . . 



PAGES 
224-226 
227-231 
232-236 
237-240 
241-248 



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THIRI> EDITIOIV. 



TDe EogiQii Kup's GalecKisE 

— BY — 
ROBERX ORIMSHA^W, 1^. E. 

Author of "Steam Engine Catechism/' etc. 

Telling how to Erect, Adjust, and Run the Prin- 
cipal Steam Engines in use in 
the United States. 



Principai. Features of Various Speciai. Makes 
OF Kngines, viz.: 
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Fitcliburg, Fraser & Chalmers' Corliss, Frick -Corliss, Greene, 
Ide, Porter- Allen, Porter-Hamilton, Putnam, Russell, Straight- 
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Temper Cut-Off, Shipping and Receiving Foun- 
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Engines : 
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Woodbury-Booth. 



Third Edition. 366 Pages. Fully Illustrated 

Handsomely bound in Cloth, $2.00. 

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JUST PUBLISHED. 

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Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. 

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Third Edition. Illustrated by 270 Engravings. Revised and Enlarged. 



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HECHAHICAL HOVEMEHTS, 

POWERS, DEVICES, AND APPLIANCES. 

By GARDNER D. HISCOX, n.E., 

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Section I. Mechanical Po'wers.— Weights, Revolution of Forces, Pressures^ 
Levers, Pulleys, Tackle, etc. 

Section II. Transmission of Power,— Ropes, Belts, Friction Gear, Spur»- 
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Quantities, and Appliances. 

Section IV. Steam Power- Boilers and Adjuncts.— Engines, Valves and 
Valve Gear, Parallel Motion Gear, Governors and Engine Devices, Rotary En- 
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Section VI. Motive Power— Gas and Gasoline Engines.— Valve Gear 
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Variable Cranks, Universal Shaft Couplings, Gyroscope, etc. 

Section XIII. Horological.— Clock and Watch Movements and Devices. 

Section XIV. Mining.— Quarrying, Ventilation, Hoisting, Conveying, Pulver- 
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Bearings, Steps, Couplings, Universal and Flexible Couplings, Clutches, Speed 
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Machines, Railway Devices, Trucks, Brakes, Turntables, Locomotives, Gas, Gas 
Furnaces, Acetylene Generators, Gasoline Mantle Lamps, Fire Arms, etc. 

*** Prepaid to any address on receipt of price. 

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JUST PUBLISHED. 



THIItr> EI3ITI01V 



The Modern flachinist, 

By JOHN T. USHER, Machinist. 



PRICE, - . ^ $2.50. 



Specially Adapted to the Use of Machinists, Apprentices, 
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A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop practice, 
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A NEW BOOK FROn COVER TO COVER. 

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Svo. 32^ Pages. 257 Illustrations. Price, $3*50. 



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This is a new work of merit. It is on " Modern Machine Shop Methods," as its name implies. 
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NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., rubi.ismbrs, 
132 NASSAU STREET, NEW VQRK. 

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JUST PUBLISHED. 

"SHOP KINK5," 

BT 

ROBERT QRIMSHAW. 

400 PAGES. 222 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Price, $2.50. 

This book is entirely different from any other on machine shop practice. It 
is not descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of 
doing ivork better^ more cheaply and more rapidly than usual, as done in fifty 
or more leading shops in Europe and America. 

Some of its over 500 Items, and 222 Illustrations, are contributed directly for 
its pages by eminent constructors ; the rest have been gathered by the author in. 
his Thirty Years' Travel and Experience. 

It is ihe most useful book yet issued for the Machinist. 

No shop can afford to be without it. 

Every employee can fit himself for advancement by studying its pages. 

It will benefijt all, from apprentice to proprietor. 



A FEW OF THE MANY TESTOI03iIALS OF " SHOP KOKS." 

ThiB is an interesting written book, with plenty of good engravings, which are 
a great help in making clear any text, no matter how well written. There are over 
five hundred separate items, selected from the authors observations and the ob- 
servations of others, as well as from the leading mechanical papers, it abounds in 
handy ways of doing work, commonly called shop kinks, as the title of the book 
implies, and there is enough useful information in the book to repay the outlay 
many times over. The devices shown are all taken from actual practice and the 
name of the shops where they are to be found is given, so there is nothing that can 
be called untried or impracticable In It. The information imparted by books of 
this class, especially when written by men of long experience, is the most valuable 
that can be obtained, and the intelligent shopman will carefully consider the means- 
employed in varioua shops, determine which is best adapted to his particular ca8e» 
and adopt the method that will save the most time and money for their employer. 
No machinist can read it without finding new methods and ideas which will be of 
Talue to him —Machinery, March, 1896. 

*' A strongly bound cloth book, 400 pages, entitled " Shop Kinks " by that 
living encyclopaedia of mechanics, Robert Grimshaw. As might be expected, the 
author covers almost every possible subject that could come up in a machine shop. 
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Mr. Grimshaw is not one of those who think there is nothing known outside of 
himself, but is ever gleaning " Kinks " from other men's brains. A copy should be 
on the desk of every machinist in a factory repair shop, for the right "Kink " at the 
right time will often prevent the stoppage of a factory."— IFac^e'5 Fibre and Fabric, 
Feb. 15, 1896. 

NORIVIAN W. HENLEY & CO., publishers. 

133 Nassau Street, New ^York. 



Spe(^l circular describing the above sent on request, or W0 will tend eopie* 

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i--^J>:A.ft 



^^^j£M^"-v" 




021 218 357 A 




